World-Universe Model—Alternative to Big Bang Model

This manuscript provides a comparison of the Hypersphere World-Universe Model (WUM) with the prevailing Big Bang Model (BBM) of the Standard Cosmology. The performed analysis of BBM shows that the Four Pillars of the Standard Cosmology are model-dependent and not strong enough to support the model. The angular momentum problem is one of the most critical problems in BBM. Standard Cosmology cannot explain how Galaxies and Extra Solar systems obtained their substantial orbital and rotational angular momenta, and why the orbital momentum of Jupiter is considerably larger than the rotational momentum of the Sun. WUM is the only cosmological model in existence that is consistent with the Law of Conservation of Angular Momentum. To be consistent with this Fundamental Law, WUM discusses in detail the Beginning of the World. The Model introduces Dark Epoch (span-ning from the Beginning of the World for 0.4 billion years) when only Dark Matter Particles (DMPs) existed, and Luminous Epoch (ever since for 13.8 billion years). Big Bang discussed in Standard Cosmology is, in our view, transition from Dark Epoch to Luminous Epoch due to Rotational Fission of Overspinning Dark Matter (DM) Supercluster’s Cores. WUM envisions Matter carried from the Universe into the World from the fourth spatial dimension by DMPs. Ordinary Matter is a byproduct of DM annihilation. WUM solves a number of physical problems in contemporary Cosmology and As-trophysics through DMPs and their interactions: Angular Momentum problem in birth and subsequent evolution of Galaxies and Extrasolar sys-tems—how do they obtain it;


Introduction
Hypersphere World-Universe Model (WUM) is proposed as an alternative to the prevailing Big Bang Model of Standard Cosmology. WUM is a classical model, and is described by classical notions, which define emergent phenomena.
By definition, an emergent phenomenon is a property that is a result of simple interactions that work cooperatively to create a more complex interaction. Physically, simple interactions occur at a microscopic level, and the collective result can be observed at a macroscopic level. WUM introduces classical notions once the very first ensemble of particles has been created at the cosmological time ter density DM Ω , dark energy density Λ Ω , scalar spectral index, curvature fluctuation amplitude, and reionization optical depth. The values of these six parameters are mostly not predicted by current theory; other possible parameters are fixed at "natural" values e.g. total density equals to 1.00, neutrino masses are small enough to be negligible. The ΛCDM model can be extended by adding cosmological inflation. It is frequently referred to as the Standard Model of Big Bang (BB) cosmology, which is the classical model too.
The Four Pillars of the Standard Cosmology are as follows [2]: • Expansion of the Universe; • Origin of the cosmic background radiation; • Nucleosynthesis of the light elements; • Formation of galaxies and large-scale structures. BBM and WUM are principally different models. Comparison of the main parameters of the models is presented in Table 1.
Angular momentum problem is one of the most critical problems in the Standard Cosmology that must be solved. Any theory of evolution of the Universe that is not consistent with the Law of Conservation of Angular Momentum should be promptly ruled out. To the best of our knowledge, the Hypersphere World-Universe Model is the only cosmological model in existence that is consistent with this Fundamental Law (see Sections 3.7, 3.8 and 3.9).

Expansion of the Universe
The fact that galaxies are receding from us in all directions was first discovered This problem was resolved by the cosmological Inflation, which is a theory of an extremely rapid exponential expansion of space in the early universe. This rapid expansion increased the linear dimensions of the early universe by a factor of at least 10 26 , and so increased its volume by a factor of at least 10 78 . The inflationary epoch lasted from 10 −36 s after the conjectured BB singularity to some time between 10 −33 and 10 −32 s after the singularity. Following the inflationary period, the universe continued to expand, but at a slower rate.
"It's a beautiful theory, said Peebles. Many people think it's so beautiful that it's surely right. But the evidence of it is very sparse" [4].
According to Silk, our best theory of the beginning of the universe, inflation, awaits a definitive and falsifiable probe, in order to satisfy most physicists that it is a trustworthy theory. Our basic problem is that we cannot prove the theory of inflation is correct, but we urgently need to understand whether it actually occurred [5].
E. Conover in the paper "Debate over the universe's expansion rate may unravel physics. Is it a crisis?" outlined the following situation with the measurements of an expansion rate of the universe [6]: • Scientists with the Planck experiment have estimated that the universe is expanding at a rate of 67.4 km/s Mpc with an experimental error of 0.5 km/s Mpc; • But supernova measurements have settled on a larger expansion rate of 74.0 km/s Mpc, with an error of 1.4 km/s Mpc. That leaves an inexplicable gap between the two estimates. Now "the community has started to take this [problem] extremely seriously", says cosmologist Daniel Scolnic of Duke University, who works on the supernova project led by Riess, called SHOES; • It's unlikely that an experimental error in the Planck measurement could explain the discrepancy. That prospect is "not a possible route out of our current crisis," said cosmologist Lloyd Knox of the University of California, Davis; • So, worries have centered on the possibility that the supernova measurements contain unaccounted for systematic errors-biases that push the SHOES estimate to larger value. time of decoupling are the same photons that we see in the CMB radiation now.
But then, why the CMB is a perfect black-body?
According to WUM, wavelength is a classical notion. Photons, which are quantum objects, have only four-momenta. They don't have wavelengths. By definition, "Black-body radiation is the thermal electromagnetic radiation within or surrounding a body in thermodynamic equilibrium with its environment". In frames of WUM, the black-body spectrum of CMB is due to thermodynamic equilibrium of photons with the Intergalactic plasma [1], the existence of which is experimentally proved [8].

Nucleosynthesis of the Light Elements
Big Bang Nucleosynthesis (BBN) refers to the production of nuclei other than those of hydrogen during the early phases of the Universe. Primordial nucleosynthesis is believed to have taken place in the interval from roughly 10 seconds to 20 minutes after the Big Bang and is calculated to be responsible for the formation of most of the universe's helium as the isotope helium-4, along with small amounts of deuterium, helium-3, and a very small amount of lithium-7.
Essentially all of the elements that are heavier than lithium were created much later, by stellar nucleosynthesis in evolving and exploding stars.
The history of BBN began with the calculations of R. Alpher in the 1940s.
During the 1970s, there were major efforts to find processes that could produce deuterium, but those revealed ways of producing isotopes other than deuterium.
The problem was that while the concentration of deuterium in the universe is consistent with the BBM as a whole, it is too high to be consistent with a model that presumes that most of the universe is composed of protons and neutrons.
The standard explanation now used for the abundance of deuterium is that the universe does not consist mostly of baryons, but that non-baryonic dark matter makes up most of the mass of the universe [9].
According to modern cosmological theory, lithium was one of the three elements synthesized in the Big Bang. But in case of lithium, we observe a cosmological lithium discrepancy in the universe: older stars seem to have less lithium Journal of High Energy Physics, Gravitation and Cosmology

Formation of Galaxies and Large-Scale Structures
The formation and evolution of galaxies can be explained only in terms of gravitation within an inflation + dark matter + dark energy scenario [12]. The standard Hot Big Bang model provides a framework for understanding galaxy formation. At about 10,000 years after the Big Bang, the temperature had fallen to such an extent that the energy density of the Universe began to be dominated by massive particles, rather than the light and other radiation which had predominated earlier. This change in the form of the main matter density meant that the gravitational forces between the massive particles could begin to take effects, so that any small perturbations in their density would grow.
This brings into focus one of the shortcomings of the Standard Cosmology-the density fluctuation problem [3]: The perturbations which gravitationally collapsed to form galaxies must have been primordial in origin; from whence did they arise?
There is another problem in the Standard Cosmology-angular momentum

Black Holes
Black hole is a mathematical solution of Einstein's field equations for gravity in 3 + 1 dimensional spacetime. The simplest black hole solution is the Schwarzschild solution, which describes the gravitational field in the spherically symmetric, static, vacuum case. This solution is characterized by a single parameter, which corresponds to the mass of an object that produces the same gravitational field [15].
The existence of supermassive objects in galactic centers is now commonly accepted. It is commonly believed that the central mass is a supermassive Black Hole (BH). There exists, however, evidence to the contrary. In late 2013, ICRAR astronomer Dr. N. Hurley-Walker spotted a previously unknown radio galaxy NGC1534 that is quite close to Earth at 248 million light-years but is much fainter than it should be if the central BH was accelerating the electrons in the jets: "The discovery is also intriguing because at some point in its history the central black hole switched off but the radio jets have persisted. This is a very rare occurrence-this is only the fifth of this type to be discovered, and by far the faintest. We can only see it at low frequencies, which tells us that the electrons in the jets are not getting new energy from the black hole, so it must have been switched off for some time. The interesting thing about the object I found is that it's being hosted by a spiral galaxy, like our own". It's also possible there was never a BH there at all [16].
Recently a population of large, very low surface brightness, spheroidal galaxies was identified in the Coma cluster. The apparent survival of these Ultra Diffuse Galaxies (UDGs) in a rich cluster suggests that they have very high masses. P.
van Dokkum, et al. present the stellar kinematics of Dragonfly 44, one of the largest Coma UDGs, whose mass about equals that of the Milky Way. However, the galaxy emits only 1% of the light emitted by the Milky Way. Astronomers reported that this galaxy might be made almost entirely of dark matter. The existence of nearly-dark objects with this mass is unexpected, as galaxy formation is thought to be maximally-efficient in this regime [17]. • L. Chomiuk, et al. report the discovery of a candidate stellar-mass BH in the globular cluster M62, which they term M62-VLA1. The radio, X-ray, and optical properties of M62-VLA1 are very similar to those for V404 Cyg, one of the best-studied quiescent stellar-mass BHs [20]; • B. Giesers, et al. performed multiple epoch observations of NGC 3201 with the aim of constraining the binary fraction. The obtained data show strong evidence that the target star is in a binary system with a non-luminous object having a minimum mass of (4.36 ± 0.41) solar mass. This object should be degenerate, since it is invisible, and the minimum mass is significantly higher than the Chandrasekhar limit [21]; • J. Liu, et al. report radial velocity measurements of a Galactic star, LB-1 and find that the motion of it requires the presence of a dark companion with mass of 11 13 68 M + −  . In author's opinion, forming such massive ones in a high-metallicity environment would be extremely challenging to current stellar evolution theories [22].
In 2014, L. Mersini-Houghton claimed to demonstrate mathematically that, given certain assumptions about BH firewalls, current theories of BH formation are flawed. She claimed that Hawking radiation causes the star to shed mass at a rate such that it no longer has the density sufficient to create a BH [23].
R. K. Leane and T. R. Slatyer in the paper "Revival of the Dark Matter Hypothesis for the Galactic Center Gamma-Ray Excess" examine the impact of unmodeled source populations on identifying the true origin of the galactic center GeV excess (GCE). The authors discover striking behavior consistent with a mismodeling effect in the real Fermi data, finding that large artificial injected dark matter signals are completely misattributed to point sources. Consequently, they conclude that dark matter may provide a dominant contribution to the GCE after all [24].
As a conclusion, we have the observational evidences for the existence of non-luminous objects in centers of galaxies (for example, by the orbits of stars in the center of our galaxy), globular clusters, binary systems, and commonly accept them as BHs. But they might be "Dark Stars" composed of fermion Dark Matter Particles. A mechanism whereby Dark Matter (DM) in protostellar halos plays a role in the formation of the first stars is discussed by D. Spolyar, K.
Freese, and P. Gondolo [25]. Heat from neutralino DM annihilation is shown to overwhelm any cooling mechanism, consequently impeding the star formation process. A "dark star'' powered by DM annihilation instead of nuclear fusion may result. Dark stars are in hydrostatic and thermal equilibrium, but with an unusual power source [26].
In frames of WUM, supermassive objects in galactic centers are Macroobjects with Cores made up of DM fermions (see Sections 3.1 and 3.2).

Hypersphere World-Universe Model
There exist a number of competing cosmological models. In our opinion, the most probable model is the one that built on the minimum number of parameters. World-Universe Model (WUM) is based on two parameters only: dimensionless Rydberg constant α and dimensionless quantity Q, which increases in time Q τ ∝ , and is, in fact, a measure of the Size and Age of the • Expansion and Creation of Matter; • Content of the World; • Structure of Macroobjects; • Inter-Connectivity of Primary Cosmological Parameters; • Gravity, Space and Time are all emergent phenomena.
WUM makes reasonable assumptions in each of these areas. The remarkable agreement of the calculated values of the primary cosmological parameters with the observational data gives us considerable confidence in the Model (see Table   3, Section 3.6).
In WUM we introduce a basic unit of mass 0 m that equals to:

Multicomponent Dark Matter
Possibility of DMP observation in Centers of Macroobjects has drawn many new researchers to the field in the last forty years. Indirect effects in cosmic rays and gamma-ray background from the annihilation of cold DM in the form of heavy stable neutral leptons in Galaxies were considered in pioneer articles [27]- [32].
Important cosmological problems like Dark Matter and Dark Energy could be, in principle, solved through extended gravity. This is stressed, for example, in the famous paper of Prof. C. Corda [33]. A paper by G. Bertone and T. M. P.
Tait [34] provides It is worth to note that Rydberg unit of energy Ry equals to:     [36]. The calculated maximum mass of galaxy Core of 6 × 10 10 solar masses (see Table 2) is in good agreement with the experimentally found value [36].

The Beginning of the World
Before the Beginning of the World, there was nothing but an Eternal Universe.

Expansion and Creation of Matter
The Nucleus is expanding in the Universe, and its surface, the hypersphere, is Journal of High Energy Physics, Gravitation and Cosmology likewise expanding. The radius of the Nucleus R is increasing with speed c (gravitodynamic constant) for the absolute cosmological time from the Beginning and equals to R = cτ. The expansion of the Hypersphere World can be understood through the analogy with an expanding 3D balloon: imagine an ant residing on a seemingly two-dimensional surface of a balloon. As the balloon is blown up, its radius increases, and its surface grows. The distance between any two points on the surface increases. The ant sees her world expand but does not observe a preferred center.
According to WUM, the surface of the Nucleus is created in a process analogous to sublimation. Continuous creation of matter is the result of such process. Sublimation is a well-known endothermic process that happens when surfaces are intrinsically more energetically favorable than the bulk of a material, and hence there is a driving force for surfaces to be created.
Matter comes from the Universe to the Nucleus along the fourth spatial dimension, passing through the 4-ball surface, which is our World. Dark Matter Particles (DMPs) carry new Matter into the Nucleus. By analogy with a three-dimensional ball, which has a two-dimensional sphere surface (that has surface energy), we can imagine that our three-dimensional World (Hypersphere) has a "Surface energy" of the four-dimensional Nucleus [1].
It is important to emphasize that • Creation of Matter is a direct consequence of expansion; • Creation of DM occurs homogeneously in all points of the hypersphere World; • Ordinary Matter is a byproduct of DM annihilation. Consequently, the matter-antimatter asymmetry problem discussed in literature does not arise (since antimatter does not get created by DM annihilation). all particles under consideration we use the following characteristics:

Content of the World
• Type of particle (fermion or boson); • "Mass" that is equivalent to "Rest energy" with the constant c 2 ; • Electrical charge.
The total energy density of the Medium is 2/3 of the overall energy density V. S. Netchitailo Journal of High Energy Physics, Gravitation and Cosmology of the World. Superclusters, Galaxies, Extrasolar systems, planets, moons, etc.
are made of the same particles. The energy density of Macroobjects adds up to 1/3 of the total energy density of the World throughout the World's evolution [1].
In WUM, Time and Space are closely connected with Mediums' impedance and gravitomagnetic parameter. It follows that neither Time nor Space could be discussed in absence of the Medium. The gravitational parameter G that is proportional to the Mediums' energy density can be introduced only for the Medium filled with Matter. In frames of WUM, the Gravitation is a result of simple interactions of DMF4 with Matter that work cooperatively to create a more complex interaction. DMF4 particles are responsible for the Le Sage's mechanism of the gravitation [1].
As a conclusion, Gravity, Space and Time are all emergent phenomena [1]. In this regard, it is worth to recall the Albert Einstein quote: "When forced to summarize the theory of relativity in one sentence: time and space and gravitation have no separate existence from matter".

Inter-Connectivity of Primary Cosmological Parameters
The constancy of the universe fundamental constants, including Newtonian constant of gravitation and Planck mass, is now commonly accepted, although has never been firmly established as a fact. All conclusions on the (almost) constancy of the Newtonian parameter of gravitation are model-dependent. Comparison of the calculated cosmological parameters based on the average value of the gravitational parameter with experimentally measured parameters is presented in Table 3.
Note that the precision of the most parameters value has increased by three orders of magnitude. We are not aware of any other model that allows calculation of CMB temperature with such accuracy [1].
The remarkable agreement of the calculated values of the primary cosmological parameters with the observational data gives us considerable confidence in the Model. We propose to introduce Q as a new Fundamental Parameter tracked by CODATA and use its value in calculation of all Q-dependent parameters [1]. Journal of High Energy Physics, Gravitation and Cosmology

Dark Epoch
As

Rotational Fission
According to WUM, the rotational angular momentum of overspinning (surface speed at equator exceeding escape velocity) objects before rotational fission equals to [1]: galaxies like Milky Way could be generated at the same time. Considering that density of galaxies in the LS falls off with the square of the distance from its center near the Virgo Cluster, and the location of MW on the outskirts of the LS Journal of High Energy Physics, Gravitation and Cosmology [45], the actual number of created galaxies could be much larger.
The mass-to-light ratio of the LS is about 300 times larger than that of the Solar ratio. Similar ratios are obtained for other superclusters [46]. These facts support the rotational fission mechanism proposed above. In 1933, Fritz Zwicky investigated the velocity dispersion of Coma cluster and found a surprisingly high mass-to-light ratio (~500). He concluded: if this would be confirmed, we would get the surprising result that dark matter is present in much greater amount than luminous matter [47]. These ratios are one of the main arguments in favor of presence of large amounts of Dark Matter in the World.
Analogous calculations for MW Core based on parameters of DMF3 shell (see Table 2) produce the following value of rotational angular momentum   [49]. It means that this star must have formed between 13.66 and 13.83 Gyr, amount of time that is too short for formation of the second generation of stars according to prevailing theories.
In WUM this discovery can be explained by generation of the Core of HD 140283 by overspinning Core of the MW 13.8 billion years ago.
In frames of the developed Rotational Fission model, it is easy to explain hyper-runaway stars unbound from the Milky Way with speeds of up to ~700 km/s Myr to the current location. So far, this is the only hyper-velocity star confidently associated with the Galactic Centre [51].
In frames of the developed Model this discovery can be explained by Gravitational Burst of the overspinning Core of the Milky Way 4.8 million years ago, which gave birth to S5-HVS1 with the speed higher than the escape velocity of the Core (see Section 3.9). A

Dark Matter Fermi Bubbles
In November 2010, the discovery of two Fermi Bubbles (FBs) emitting gammaand X-rays was announced. FBs extend for about 25 kly above and below the center of the galaxy [54]. The outlines of the bubbles are quite sharp, and the bubbles themselves glow in nearly uniform gamma rays over their colossal surfaces. Gamma-ray spectrum measured by the Fermi Large Area Telescope remains unconstrained up to around 1 TeV [55].  [58]. In their opinion, the second emission mechanism must be responsible for the bulk of the low-energy, low-latitude emission. The spectrum and angular distribution of the signal is consistent with that predicted from ~10 GeV DMPs annihilating to leptons. This component is similar to the excess GeV emission previously reported by D.
It is worth to note that a similar excess of gamma-rays was observed in the Core rotates with surface speed at equator close to the escape velocity between Gravitational Bursts (GBs), and over the escape velocity at the moments of GBs; • Bipolar astrophysical jets (which are astronomical phenomena where outflows of matter are emitted as an extended beams along the axis of rotation [62]) of DMPs are ejected from the rotating Core into the Galactic halo along the rotation axis of the Galaxy; • Due to self-annihilation of DMF1 and DMF2, these beams are gamma-ray jets [56]; • The prominent X-ray structures on intermediate scales (hundreds of parsecs) above and below the plane (named the Galactic Centre "chimneys" [57]) are the result of the self-annihilation of DMF3; • FBs are bubbles with boundary between them and Intergalactic Medium that has a surface energy density equals to the basic unit of surface energy density • With Nikola Tesla's principle at heart-There is no energy in matter other than that received from the environment-we calculate mass

Hypersphere World
The physical laws we observe appear to be independent of the Worlds' curvature in the fourth spatial dimension due to the very small value of the dimension-transposing gravitomagnetic parameter of the Medium [1]. Consequently, direct observation of the Worlds' curvature would appear to be a hopeless goal.
One way to prove the existence of the Worlds' curvature is direct measure- In WUM, Local Physics is linked with the large-scale structure of the Hypersphere World through the dimensionless quantity Q. The proposed approach to the fourth spatial dimension agrees with Mach's principle: "Local physical laws are determined by the large-scale structure of the universe". Applied to WUM, it follows that all parameters of the World depending on Q are a manifestation of the Worlds' curvature in the fourth spatial dimension.

Conclusions
In conclusion, we postulate the principal role of Angular Momentum and Dark Matter in Cosmological theories of the World.
Dark Matter is abundant: • 2.4% of Ordinary Matter is in Superclusters, Galaxies, Stars, Planets, etc.