The Geochemistry of Intrusive Sediment Sampled from the 1st Century CE Inscribed Ossuaries of James and the Talpiot Tomb, Jerusalem

In 2002 an ossuary of unknown provenance was revealed to the public during a press conference; it is inscribed “James son of Joseph brother of Jesus”. Because its inscription seems to refer to a member of the Jesus of Nazareth’s family, it is natural to wonder what relationship this ossuary could have to the Talpiot tomb. Discovered in 1980 during construction operations in SE Jerusalem, the tomb contained several ossuaries inscribed with names from the Jesus family. In pursuit of physical evidence regarding such a relationship, we investigated the geochemistry of the James ossuary’s sediment which accumulated through millennia in its interior. For comparison, we similarly investigated samples of material from ossuaries taken from the Talpiot tomb, and also from a wide sample of ossuaries from other tombs in the Jerusalem area. Our purpose was to answer, if possible, two questions. First, is the chemistry of the inorganic materials (soils) which were flushed into the Talpiot tomb and ossuaries therein distinct from other ossuaries removed from tombs in the Jerusalem area? Second, presuming such a distinction exists, does the geochemistry of the materials from the James ossuary resemble either grouping? While we recognize the controversies surrounding both the origin and inscription of the James ossuary and the interpretation of the Talpiot tomb inscriptions, this geochemical evidence is worth investigation and discussion on its own merits. Employing chemical (ICP, SEM and Pb isotope) analyses we have found, based on chemical data alone, that the ossuary of James is far more similar to ossuaries removed from the Talpiot tomb than it is to any other group of ossuaries we sampled.

cause its inscription seems to refer to a member of the Jesus of Nazareth's family, it is natural to wonder what relationship this ossuary could have to the Talpiot tomb. Discovered in 1980 during construction operations in SE Jerusalem, the tomb contained several ossuaries inscribed with names from the Jesus family. In pursuit of physical evidence regarding such a relationship, we investigated the geochemistry of the James ossuary's sediment which accumulated through millennia in its interior. For comparison, we similarly investigated samples of material from ossuaries taken from the Talpiot tomb, and also from a wide sample of ossuaries from other tombs in the Jerusalem area. Our purpose was to answer, if possible, two questions. First, is the chemistry of the inorganic materials (soils) which were flushed into the Talpiot tomb and ossuaries therein distinct from other ossuaries removed from tombs in the Jerusalem area? Second, presuming such a distinction exists, does the geochemistry of the materials from the James ossuary resemble either grouping? While we recognize the controversies surrounding both the origin and inscription of the James ossuary and the interpretation of the Talpiot tomb inscriptions, this geochemical evidence is worth investigation and discussion on its own merits. Employing chemical (ICP, SEM and Pb isotope) analyses we have found, based on chemical data alone, that the ossuary of James is far more similar to ossuaries removed from the Talpiot tomb than it is to any other group of ossuaries we sampled.

Introduction
Ancient artifacts of unknown provenance are legion, they can be found in museums, private collections and in artifact markets. If not derived from a recorded excavation identifying their provenance can often be problematic. An ossuary inscribed with "James son of Joseph brother of Jesus" (Figure 1) hereafter referred to as the James ossuary, is just such an artifact. It was revealed to the public at a press conference in 2002. The inscribed ossuary, owned by an antiquities collector, was (ostensibly) purchased in the 1970s from a well known dealer in archaeological artifacts in Jerusalem's Old City. The inscription was authenticated by paleographers Professors Andre Lemaire of the Sorbonne, Paris and Ada Yardeni of the Hebrew University, Jerusalem. Soon after the ossuary's disclosure and while on display from November, 2002 to January 2003 at the Royal Ontario Museum in Toronto, a number of researchers (Ayalon et al., 2004;Silberman & Goren, 2003) announced that the inscription is a forgery. The accusation was later narrowed down to the second "brother of Jesus" portion of the inscription leaving the first "James son of Joseph" segment potentially authentic.
After a seven year trial and over a hundred testimonies the case was thrown out of court for insufficient evidence to support the claim of a forged inscription and the ossuary was soon returned to its owner. Figure 1. The vestibule and entrance gate leading into the Talpiot tomb after its discovery by construction workers. The blocking stone was missing and the tomb was flooded by over 1/2 m depth of soil. Beneath are names (in English) inscribed on 6 of the 10 ossuaries. The unprovenanced inscribed ossuary of James, and its inscription, are on the right. The Talpiot tomb was rapidly excavated soon after discovery by the Israel Antiquities Authority (IAA) and "apparently" ten ossuaries were deposited in the IAA collection in the Rockefeller Museum, Jerusalem. The names on the six inscribed ossuaries, five in Aramaic one in Greek, are, in English: Mary, Jesus son of Joseph, Judah son of Jesus, Jose (a brother of Jesus), Mariamene Mara (arguably Maria Magdalena) and Matthew. The first published data on the ossuaries was by Rahmani (Rahmani, 1994) and Kloner (Kloner, 1996), the inscribed names were viewed by the excavators (Kloner & Gibson, 2013) as typical for Roman period Palestine, consequently no attention was paid to the possible significance of the cluster of these names within what is, without any doubt, a 1 st century CE tomb located about half way between Jerusalem and Bethlehem.
A Discovery Channel film "The Lost Tomb of Jesus" (Jacobovici, 2007) first suggested a link between the James ossuary and the group of inscribed ossuaries excavated from the Talpiot tomb. Although unprovenanced, the film maker reasoned that the ossuary, inscribed with the name of the oldest brother of Jesus and having made its appearance in a Jerusalem artifact dealer's shop, is the missing 10 th ossuary excavated from the Talpiot tomb. The latter disappeared from the IAA collection at some unknown date and under rather mysterious circumstances (Kloner & Gibson, 2013: p. 45). Since the inscription alone does not provide unequivocal evidence of an ossuary's provenance we have sought another means to test this remarkable claim. For this purpose we embarked on a geochemical program of sampling and chemical analyses of soils flushed into the James and Talpiot tomb ossuaries, in addition we sampled a group of random ossuaries from tombs throughout Jerusalem ( Figure 2a, Table 1). We reasoned that the Talpiot tomb ossuaries would produce a chemically identifiable population because a landslide, linked to a major earthquake that struck Jerusalem in 363 CE, dislodged the stone blocking the entrance into the tomb allowing soil and mud to flood the tomb. The excavators reported that when found the ossuaries were covered to a depth of over 0.5 m of soil (Kloner & Gibson, 2013). The absence of stratification in the sediment flooding the tomb and position of the ossuaries in their niches with lids on indicate that flooding occurred in a single short-lived event (Shimron & Shirav, 2015). Unlike the neighboring Patio and other tombs (Tabor & Jacobovici, 2012; Table 1) which missed the soil onslaught, the Talpiot tomb, like Pompeii covered with volcanic ash, became almost instantaneously sealed from most additional geological and geochemical processes. The latter affect most tombs by the addition of moisture carrying organic materials, soil, windblown dust and anthropogenic contaminants. Consequently the Talpiot tomb ossuaries were sent on an evolutionary path which differed from ossuaries in other tombs.
A review of the appearance, intrigues and eventually disappearance from most public discourse of the James ossuary can be seen in an article titled "CASHBOX" by journalist Jonathon Gatehouse in MACLEAN'S magazine (dated March 28, 2005). Tabor and Jacobovici (Tabor & Jacobovici, 2012) with considerably more tact and scholarly detail deal with the many challenging and indeed potentially  , pp. 355-374). With the exception of the semi-quantitative (SEM) analyses of patina collected from tombs by Pellegrino and Rosenfeld (above) no scientific work has been carried out, before or since the present effort, on the ossuary of James and those removed from the Talpiot tomb. The tomb entrace has for decades been sealed by concrete. Pb-pollution map. High concentrations of Pb are based on a GSI regional soil sampling program, in addition to Cr and Ni the anomalous area also contains high concentrations of other base and precious metals.  Table 1 lists the location of tombs and materials sampled and analyzed for the purpose of this study. These include samples of sediment (refered to as soil fill) sampled from ossuaries from the Talpiot tomb, from Random tombs (most from west Jerusalem) and ossuaries removed from tombs excavated into the hills bordering the eastern part of the city (the Eastern hilltop tombs). In addition, for comparison purposes, samples of soil were collected where feasible from the interiors of some tombs in addition from Talpiot and Akeldama hills (details below).

Materials and Methods
Burial tombs are cave-like features and the ossuaries within potentially act as small caves. Both provide access to water carrying soil and atmospheric pollution consequently, through millennia they are subject to continually varying geological and geochemical change. However ossuaries, such as those recovered from the Talpiot tomb for example, which lay buried beneath a thick layer of soil for ca.
1600 years of their history, will in major part, be sealed from such processes and instead follow a geochemical evolution related to their encapsulating soil. In our attempt at identifying and quantifying a chemical signature that can possibly be linked with the Talpiot, the James and other-random ossuaries we have sampled and studied the chemistry of the sediment flushed into the interior of the nine remaining Talpiot tomb ossuaries and, after its release from the Israeli courts, we sampled the remains of sediment which infiltrated the inscribed ossuary of James.
For comparison purposes, ossuaries from some 25 additional tombs throughout Jerusalem were sampled and studied in an identical manner. We refer to the latter two groups of ossuaries as the Random and Eastern hilltop tombs ossuaries (EHT's, Table 1).
Equipped with this chemical data we focus on the following tasks: 1) determining the major and trace element (including Pb-isotopic) chemical composition of materials which invaded the Talpiot tomb ossuaries during almost two millennia of burial; 2) comparing and evaluating these data with chemical data obtained from the Random and EHT ossuaries removed from tombs throughout Jerusalem; and 3) documenting any chemical characteristics (major and chosen trace elements) distinguishing one group from another.  Figure 2a) was carried out last, it was done especially to compare chemical data from the latter with the data from the Talpiot tomb and Random ossuaries. The above data is finally compared with chemical data from soil sampled from the James ossuary (  The James ossuary, although peripheral (due to its higher Ca content) falls into the well defined TT ossuaries cluster. Soils of the non-Talpiot tomb ossuaries including the Talpiot hill soil and average for Rendzina soils all fit well within a different (lower Al and K) compositional cluster. The chemistry of the airborn dust is entirely outside both these concentrations thus implying foreign sources. (b) Scatterplot of CrNi vs. SiAlKFe. A strong positive correlation (R = 0.891) between the two groups of collective variables CrNi and SiAlKFe is seen. The Talpiot hill Pale Rendzina soil is in major part derived directly from, and thus reflects, the underlying chalk-flint bedrock, it contains more Cr and Ni then most other ossuaries we examined. The chemistry of the James ossuary fits well into the TT ossuaries cluster. (c) Scatterplot Ca vs. SiAlKFe (combined). The TT ossuaries cluster is well defined on this scatterplot although a few peripherial values from other tombs are also included. There is a very good negative correlation between Ca and the aluminosillicates. The James ossuary is peripheral but within the TT cluster, we can attribute this to the high concentration of bone Ca (see P values in Figure 4c) in the latter. With respect to the aluminosilicates the James and TT ossuaries, the Talpiot hill soil and average for Rendzina soil all fall into the same compositional cluster.  (Dan et al., 1971;Arkin et al., 1976;Singer, 2007  SiAlKFe. The plot exhibits a strong to moderate positive correlation between Pb with SiAlKFe in the Random and EHT ossuaries (two best fit curves R = 0.979 and R = 0.695). Such is not the case for the TT ossuaries. The Pb values for the James, Mary and Jesus ossuaries are probably an exception as they seem to record a different, more complicated story ( Figure 4a, Figure 5 and Figure 6). A concentration of 1 ppm Pb in bone is viewed by the WHO as a level of concern, 10 ppm and above as severe poisoning, and in normal soils a Pb concentration above 20 ppm (horizontal arrow above) is viewed as anomalous. It is noteworthy that virtually all soils sampled from the EHT ossuaries carry anomalous concentrations of lead. (c) Scatterplot of Pb vs. P. Two best fit trendlines (the lower includes the James ossuary) define two possible positive correlation trends linking Pb with P. Two clusters, one for the TT (including Akeldama hill) soils and the other in the high P range (5% -12% P) for some Random and most EHT ossuaries, do not show any correlation between Pb and P (bone). The latter values can be attributed to urban polution ( Figure 2b). (d) Scatterplot for the elements groups CuPbZn vs. SiAlKFe. Two best fit trendlines connecting most Random and EHT values reveal very good positive correlation (R = 0.9863 and R = 0.8723) between the contaminating metals and the aluminosilicates where the metals are concentrated. The Talpiot tomb ossuaries group are an exception as they do not record such a correlation between the polluting metals and soil chemistry ( Figure 4b). We emphasise that without its unique metal contaminants (1119 ppm combined metals) the James ossuary would fit well within the TT ossuaries group.
For GSI and Bactochem data major element, and also Sr, Ba and Zr concen-  Element XR). The international standard BCR-2 was used to calibrate the results, and a solution of Scandium was used as an internal standard. The chemical processing was carried out in a clean-room environment with reagents purified in two-bottle Teflon stills. Samples were dissolved in a mixture of HF and HNO 3. Strontium was separated from the other elements using a Sr-specific ion exchange resin.
SEM examinations were carried out at the Hebrew University Nanolaboratory

Analyses and Findings
We have studied our chemical analyses (Table 2)  and finaly discuss the significance of our Pb isotope data ( Figure 6). Next we apply a likelihood analysis to some chosen major elements ( Figure 7) and finaly perform a factor analysis where, besides the major elements, we pay attention also to some of the trace and rare earth elements (REE's, Figure 8). For technical reasons, we could not obtain chemical data using all methods for every sample for each ossuary.     . Studentized major element data from all labs. The various symbols represent chemical assays for K and Al from random tombs normalized by their mean and standard deviation; and assays for Talpiot tomb ossuaries normalized similarly. Thus, all plotted data are effectively Student's t deviates-they all plot about the origin and rarely beyond a value of 3.0. The larger symbols represent our two assays from the James ossuary normalized using parameters from these two groups in turn. Note that normalizing by Talpiot tomb mean and standard deviation plots near the center of the diagram, while normalizing by random ossuary mean and standard deviation produces unlikely outliers.

Scatterplots for Selected Major and Trace Element Concentrations
We use scatterplots to display the chemical relationship between two variables each variable representing a set of chemical data (   (Singer, 2007).
In Figure 3a we show the relation between the Al and K components in ossuaries' soils. The chemical distinction between the non-Talpiot and Talpiot tomb groups of ossuaries (the latter including the James) is unambiguous. Furthermore, a marked distinction of the TT group of soils (with the James) is shown in the plot for CrNi vs. SiAlKFe (Figure 3b). We can probably attribute most of the higher (above the 100 ppm line) concentration of Cr and Ni in most EHT, TT and James ossuaries, including the Talpiot hill soil, to the unique chemical milieu generated by weathering of the Senonian chalk-flint bedrock. Figure 3c illustrates the expected negative correlation between Ca (the carbonate fraction of soil) and the combined SiAlKFe (clay) fraction. We note that the James is peripheral, we can attribute this to Ca enrichment attributed to the high bone content of the James ossuary (Figures 4a-c).
In Figure 4a we show the relationship betwee Ca and Pb. Since the reservoir for natural Pb in soils are the aluminosilicates and Fe-oxides rather than carbonates (Teutsch et al., 2001 and Figure 4a, Figure 4b) it appears that some of the Pb enrichment can be attributed to other potential lead contributors. One such Pb source is implied by the bone content (note the high P and Ca concentrations in the James) but also anthropogenic contamination caused by urban pollution by petrol Pb, and also metal objects (Figure 5a, Figure 5b) from workshops and artifacts. Nonetheless, on the basis of published data pertaining to urban contamination of local soils (Teutsch et al., 2001;Erel et al., 1997)

Pb Isotope Analyses
Since the isotopic composition of lead remains unchanged from the original ore into metal during refining, smelting and weathering processes, Pb isotopes are important tools in provenancing ancient materials and artifacts. We determined the Pb isotopes on some of the relevant materials available to us for sampling and study-soil fills from three inscribed Talpiot tomb ossuaries (the Jesus, Mariamene and Mary) and 11 samples from the EHT ossuaries. In addition we analyzed the two samples representing Jerusalem's main soils, the Talpiot hill Pale Rendzina and Akeldama hill Brown Rendzina or Terra Rosa soil. Soil was also collected by a robotic arm from the Patio tomb floor. The latter is located 60 m west of the Talpiot tomb and is an important archaeological site potentially linked to early Christianity (Tabor & Jacobovici, 2012). Because of their relevance we also utilized Pb isotopic values from previous studies, they include data on petrol Pb-contaminated Israeli soils (Teutsch et al., 2001;Erel et al., 1997) and Pb isotope data obtained from hydraulic plasters from installations in ancient Jerusalem, Judean Desert (Qumran), Jericho (Palace of the Kings) and the Sepphoris antiquities site in the Galilee (Shimron, 2003;Shimron, 2018).
A plot of the isotopes 208/206 Pb vs. 207/206 Pb (Table 3 and Figure 6) shows a   (Shimron, 2003) have virtually identical Pb-isotopic values. Such values imply contamination by lead from an (isotopically) identical lead ore and/or an identical Pb-contaminated water source. All these fall well within the field of Pb isotope values obtained from Roman period metal artifacts excavated in Israel (Yahalom Mack et al., 2015) and references therein). Group 2 cluster contains values for the EHT ossuaries, one of two (an industrial pool) Sepphoris plasters, plasters from two installations in Ancient (Roman period) Jerusalem and values for soil from the Mary ossuary.
Group 3 cluster envelops points for contaminated (including petrol Pb) soils and also values from the Akeldama hill soil (Figure 4b, Figure 4c). Group 4 cluster is close to the range of lead from natural soils (Teutsch et al., 2001;Erel et al., 1997). It includes the non-poluted Talpiot hill, the Patio tomb and Mariamene ossuary soils.

Statistical Analyses of Major Element Assays
A classification problem analogous to provenancing the James ossuary is that of Mosteller and Wallace (Mosteller & Wallace, 1984) determining authorship of the disputed Federalist papers. We have used this analog as guidance in our efforts to use major element assays for classification. Our problem also closely resembles the common forensic problem of identifying the source of a soil or plant residue on a piece of crime evidence. In a recent publication of the Centre for Australian Forensic Soil Science, R. W. Fitzpatrick and M. D. Raven (Fitzpatrick & Raven, 2016) state: "In essence, forensic soil scientists and geologists must determine if there are unique features of soils or geological materials crucial to an investigation that enables these soils to be compared with soils from known locations. To achieve these objectives, there are various approaches, stages and steps for ensuring that this is achieved but there is no 'authoritative scene of crime manual or laboratory methods manual'. The approach and method of each forensic situation has to be taken on its merits according to existing conditions but must involve using standard approaches to record, describe and analysis materials …" Lark and Rawlins (Lark & Rawlins, 2008) have proposed the building of a soils chemical database which would help determine the provenance of soil evidence in a forensic investigation.
Specifically they suggested a likelihood function with using elemental profile of the unknown sample compared to known elemental profiles at particular loca-

tions.
We have thought about how various groups of ossuaries might become chemically distinct from one another, and then applied methods done in standard ways, to quantify these distinctions. Figure 3 and Figure 4 show that a statistical model should readily distinguish members of the Talpiot group from random ossuaries. The TT ossuaries soil is enriched with Si, Al, Fe, K, Na and Mg when compared to soils taken from our random samples. Using all data from the three laboratories available for the major elements Al, Fe, K, Na and Mg, we first decided on three elements (Al, Fe, and K) exhibiting the largest discriminating factors-statistics indicating the elements having greatest difference between Talpiot and non-Talpiot groups. Using these we built a likelihood model based on a Student's t support function. We calculated parameters of a comprehensive multivariate model which includes estimated correlation among major element assays. We then calculated likelihood ratios of our samples, one each for GSI and Bergen analyses, of James ossuary soil fill material coming from either a Talpiot tomb-like ossuary or an ossuary with chemistry like the random group. Our result is a logarithm (base 10) likelihood of slightly less than to slightly greater than 4 depending on which assays for the James ossuary one chooses for comparison. A likelihood of this magnitude alone suggests our major element assays provide powerful evidence (see Royall, 1997 in regard to likelihood measuring evidence) for a Talpiot classification for the James ossuary.
However, a useful example is to illustrate how such evidence should modify one's prior beliefs about membership. In this regard an assumed prior odds of 300:1 in favor of a non-Talpiot classification for the James ossuary, which is approximately the ratio of number of all known ossuaries to Talpiot ossuaries, with a log-likelihood ratio of 4 results in posterior odds above 30:1 favoring a Talpiot designation.

Factor Analysis
Factor analysis was carried out on log-transformed data of all Bergen University

Discussion
Prior to discovery the Talpiot tomb ossuaries were completely buried by East Jerusalem's soils for some 1600 years. During this time some of the encapsulating soil invaded the ossuaries. Yet, in spite of being subtly modified by invasive dust, for most elements the chemical composition of the covering soil and that which invaded the ossuaries falls into well-defined compositional clusters implying a common geochemical history. In contrast, soils collected from random ossuaries throughout Jerusalem, including from geological terrain identical to the TT cluster (the EHT group), differ chemically while showing a broad spread in compositional values in addition to extensive anthropogenic contamination.
Specifically, Pb-isotopes for soil fills from most EHT, Akeldama hill, and perhaps including the Mary, ossuaries fall into a compositional cluster indicative of lead contributed from what was probably a common anthropogenic (urban and Alkyl-Pb) source. The latter is well exhibited on the Jerusalem soil map; this resembles a mushroom-like shape of toxic fallout with concentrations of Pb (and other metals) in soils frequently in the range 40 -380 ppm (Figure 2b). In addition, Pb-isotopic data ( Figure 6) also provide evidence that occupants of some of the TT ossuaries may have consumed Pb-polluted water from identical sources such as the Pb-lined plumbing system in Roman-period Sepphoris and/or from Pb-enriched water sources elsewhere (e.g. Qumran).
While Figure 8 shows especially that various groups of ossuaries form a distinct population based on chemistry, it also shows a substantial scatter around a central measure. What is the source of this scatter? First, the analytical uncertainties of methods and equipment employed in the laboratories (<1%) is miniscule compared to the observed scatter. Thus, we conclude that the major source of uncertainty is that underlying the samples themselves magnified by sampling methods. For example, within the Talpiot tomb the sediment covering its ossuaries was not necessarily homogeneous being as it was a landslide mixed combination of soils, chalk, flint and marl. Each Talpiot tomb ossuary found itself covered by a broadly consistent material with a unique local (Talpiot hill) recipe.
Among the Random ossuaries collected from many tombs airborne particles, and even airborne contaminants such as Alkyl-lead, are not necessarily identical from tomb to tomb due to location or construction. Moreover, the chalk and limestone comprising the ossuaries themselves may have come from various unique sources.
Finally, when sediment fill had become cemented in some ossuaries, particularly in the Random group, the scraping needed to collect a sample probably contributed to some enrichment in Ca from the chalk, cementing flowstone and P from degrading bone accompanied by a decrease in clay-derived elements from dilution. Nonetheless, we have successfully demonstrated at first identifying physical mechanisms by which artifacts would evolve chemically along unique paths; and, then demonstrating that these expectations were borne out by chemical analyses. Perhaps this combination of broad geological considerations with analytical chemistry is a useful model to employ in the study of artifacts in general.

Conclusion
Of our stated objectives we conclude the following: First, the chemistry of the inorganic materials (mostly soils) which were flushed into the Talpiot tomb and ossuaries it held are distinct from other ossuaries removed from tombs in the Jerusalem area. Second, having evidence of the distinct chemistry of these soils, we have shown in several ways-factor analysis, likelihood analysis of major elements assays, isotope analysis, and through analysis of chemistry scatterplots-a remarkable similarity between chemistry of the James ossuary and the Talpiot tomb group. One obvious conclusion is that the James ossuary is likely a member of the Talpiot group. However, being aware of the controversy surrounding both this tomb and this ossuary, we must suggest other possible explanations for this similarity. Two come to mind, which we can easily address.
The James ossuary may have obtained its chemistry in the courtyard of the antiquities dealer or even home of the antiquities collector, and this chemistry is by chance similar to that of the Talpiot tomb. We have no chemical data regarding the chemistry of airborn dusts in the Jerusalem area over the long-term, but we have analyzed a sample of such dust one of us (AES) collected after a major dust storm which struck the country in September 2015 ( Figure 3c, Table 2).
We found that this desert airborn dust is enriched in Si, Al, K, Fe and Mg and much impoverished in Ca relative to the Talpiot tomb, the James, all other ossuaries and most Jerusalem soils in general (Figure 3c). Although showing some chemical similarity with the silicic flint-rich soil from the Patio tomb, it bears no resemblance to the chemistry of either the Talpiot tomb or to any soils from the Jerusalem area.
Another possible explanation is that the James ossuary actually belongs to the group of Random ossuaries and simply represents an outlier in their typical chemistry. Putting this possibility to test was our rationale for the likelihood analysis above. For this explanation to hold requires not only an outlier status for the James ossuary, but one that happens to map in the heart of the Talpiot group. The likelihood ratio argues strongly against such a coincidental occurrence.
A third possible explanation is more difficult to address. One might speculate that the James ossuary came from some yet unconsidered tomb with a disturbed environment, that is, a tomb breached with soils diluted with marl from the Talpiot hill. We know of no other such tomb except the Talpiot, but of such an alternative we can only conclude that time will tell.
Finally, we have shown that detailed chemical analyses of soils sampled from ossuaries can, within limits, be useful in provenancing such artifacts. Our conclusions are made possible here by the incidental coalescence of a number of geological phenomena: 1) the unique chalk-chert geochemistry of East Jerusalem's bedrock; 2) a powerful earthquake which shook the region in antiquity; and 3) the generation of tectonic slides one of which caused flooding and burial with soil of the Talpiot tomb and ossuaries therein. It is remarkable that the