The Social Dynamics of Illegal Wood Harvesting on Indigenous Woody Vegetation: A Case Study of Chimanimani National Park, Eastern Zimbabwe

Illegal wood harvesting, a factor that threatens conservation efforts, was as-sessed in Chimanimani National Park (CNP), eastern Zimbabwe, in April 2016. The study identified preferred indigenous woody species, determined the uses and quantities of indigenous wood extracted, and established local people’s knowledge and perceptions on forest resource conservation, institutional framework and management by-laws. Mixed data collection methods, which included questionnaires and semi-structured interviews were used. For questionnaires, a three-stage sampling design was adopted; that is, purposive sampling, where three Wards (i.e. Chikukwa Ward 11, Chikwakwa Ward 17 and Ngorima Ward 5b) were selected as study areas from a total of seventeen Wards in Chimanimani District. The three selected Wards had a combined total of 15 villages. Stage 2 involved random sampling, where three villages, one from each selected Ward, i.e. Batanai (75 households), Chikukwa (110 households) and Tamuka (46 households), with a total of 231 households, were chosen. Stage 3 was the random selection of households, where 46 questionnaires were administered and collected in the 3 selected villages, representing 20% of the targeted population. The study results highlighted that the preferred woody species included those of Acacia, Bauhinia, Brachystegia, Combretum, Pericopsis and Terminalia genera. The illegally harvested indigenous woody plants were principally for household uses. Quantities collected ranged from 0.2 to 0.4 mended that a robust community-based strategy to conserve woody species and natural resource utilisation be developed.


Introduction
Disturbances taking place in protected areas, especially on indigenous woody species posed by human activities are a cause for concern. Overexploitation of indigenous woody species is becoming an acute ecological tragedy of modern times as there is an increasing trend, fueled by high demand for timber, agriculture, mining and energy (Stuat & Adams, 1990;Tsai et al., 2019). Comiskey et al. (2003) argued that nearly half of the protected forests in the world ranging between 750 and 800 million hectares of the original 1.5 to 1.6 billion hectares that previously decorated the planet were cleared.
In Asia, some protected areas like Malaysia's Janda Baik face massive pressures of deforestation 1 due to human encroachment, increased demand for forest products, urban development and illegal agricultural practices (World Wide Fund, WWF, 2001). In South America, Brazil's commercial farmers clear cerrado and engage in illegal wood harvesting in protected forests to generate large profits with an estimated 8.5 million hectares of protected tropical rainforests in Brazil being lost every year (Thomas, 2004). The rate and profitability of deforestation is also influenced by changes in agricultural prices (Dallmeier, 1992).
Hence, the protected tropical rainforests of Brazil were estimated to be less by 90% -95% of their original state in the early 2000s (WWF, 2001).
On the African continent, loss of vegetation in protected areas was estimated to be accounting for around 55% of global forest loss (WWF, 2001). Counsell (2009) Mackenzie et al. (2011) observed that deforestation due to increased need for natural forest resources was prevalent.
Tanzania lost over 400,000 hectares of forest between 2000 and 2005 due to high demand for forest products (FAO, 2007). Other African countries with documented high levels of illegal wood harvesting include the Congos, Ethiopia, Ghana, Kenya and Nigeria (Mugabe & Clark, 1998). In Kenya, for example, Masaai communities engaged in charcoal burning as an economic alternative to their declining pastoral lifestyle as well as the use of woody species like Acacia 1 Deforestation-the process whereby vegetation is removed for various purposes resulting in the part of the land partially or completely exposed to negative element (Penny, 2009 ICRAF, 1992;Herlocker, 1999;Kilinge & Okello, 2005). In southern Africa, forests and woodlands are the primary energy sources in the form of wood fuel or charcoal and a source of commercial timber, with hard-wood species such as Pterocarpus angolensis (kiaat), Afzelia quanzensis (chamfuta), Dalbergia melanoxylon (African blackwood), Combretum imberbe (leadwood), Diospyros mespiliformis (African ebony), Pericopsis elata (African teak) and Khaya anthotheca (red mahogany) being selectively targeted (McCullum, 2000). These important woody species are now mainly confined to protected areas (e.g. Gandiwa, 2011;Lui & Coomes, 2016;Tsai et al., 2019).
Looking back, it was noted that during the pre-colonial and early colonial periods of the 19th century, illegal wood harvesting was minimal in Africa due to low human populations and demand (Mamimine & Mandiregerei, 2001 (Shumba, 2001). The aim of the then Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) Forestry Act of 1949 was to ensure that indigenous forests continued to provide timber for railway sleepers, mining and high-quality flooring for which they were being logged since the turn of the twentieth century (McGregor, 1991;Shumba, 2001). This Forestry Act of 1949 was later superseded by the Zimbabwe Forest Act (Chapter 19.05) as amended in 1999.
Despite the presence of legislative frameworks on forestry in Zimbabwe, FAO (2007) and Forest Commission of Zimbabwe (2012) stated that an average of 327,000 hectares or 1.48% of forest cover per year were lost between 1990 and 2010. Indigenous woody species notably of Acacia, Brachystegia genera and Julbernardia globiflora were reportedly targeted by local communities, threatening woodland conservation efforts and stands out as one of the greatest challenges facing local and national authorities throughout Zimbabwe, as communities depend on woody vegetation as a source of fuel energy (Nduku, 1993;Clarke, 1994;Chenje & Paleczny, 1998;Cunningham & Saigo, 1999;Muboko et al., 2014).
Based at the high rates of deforestation, it is projected that a few of Zimbabwe's protected natural forests will survive to the end of the 21 st century in their current pristine state.
In Chimanimani National Park (CNP), there are concerns over woodland degradation from anthropogenic activities (Gandiwa & Gandiwa, 2012). This study therefore aimed to address the following objectives, i.e. to: 1) identify preferred indigenous woody species, determine the uses and quantities of indigenous woody plants extracted by communities adjacent to the CNP, and 2) assess the local knowledge and perspectives on the effectiveness of forest resource by-laws 2 and the institutional frameworks in forest resource management.

Study Area
CNP was designated as a protected area in 1985, covers 171 km 2 and is located in the eastern highlands of Zimbabwe ( Figure 1). CNP is situated in a wet agro-ecological zone, with an altitude of over 1500 m above sea level. Mean annual rainfall varies between 1500 and 2000 mm, with a mean annual temperature variation of 22˚C in the south east lowlands to less than 18˚C at the peak of the Chimanimani mountains (Moyo et al., 1993). CNP is bound on the eastern side by the Chimanimani mountain range which runs southwards parallel to the Zimbabwe and Mozambique international boundary. At the time of the study,

Data Collection
A mixed methods approach was used, relying mainly on household questionnaires and semi-structured interviews with key informants conducted over the month of April 2016. For the household questionnaire, a three-stage sampling design was adopted; that is, 1) purposive sampling, where three Wards (Chi- Wards group together six to twelve villages (Madzudzo, 1997;Mashapa et al., 2019). Guided by the study objectives, the household questionnaire sought respondents to identify the most preferred harvested woody species, their uses and associated challenges in forest resource management, the quantities of woody plants they extract from the study area and their perceptions on institutional and legal frameworks on local forest resource management. In addition, semi-structured interview guides were used on 12 key informants selected through convenience sampling and these key informants included officials from government parastat- The key informant interview guide included questions on policy implications on protected area management and how government departments were enforcing by-laws of woodland management across the study area. Key informants were also asked to highlight the impact of human activities on the woody vegetation of the study area. Seventy-six percent (76%, n = 35) of the household study respondents' ages ranged from 35 to 60 years and about 11% (n = 5) were over 60 years old. However, 13% (n = 6) of the respondents were less than 30 years old. Literacy was high as most respondents reported being educated with 71% (n = 33) of the household heads having received at least primary education. About

Data Analysis
Descriptive statistics (e.g. mean and variances) were used to describe and compare recorded variables across the sampled areas and to analyze the local perceptions on the effectiveness of natural forest resource by-laws in the study area in
Results for indigenous woody plants collected for use as fencing timber indicated that most respondents (39.1%) collected between 16 -20 wood poles, 17.4% collected more than 21 poles, 10.9% collected 6 -10 poles and a few (8.7%) col-  (Figure 2(d)). About 23. 9% did not collect woody vegetation for fencing poles. There was a significant difference (χ 2 = 58.97, df = 12, p < 0.001) between the quantity of fencing timber collected per month and frequency of collection across the Wards' study villages.
For tobacco curing, about 11% (n = 5) of respondents collected 3 to 6 tons and just 2.2% collected 1.5 to 3 tons of fuelwood. The quantity of wood collected for tobacco curing did not differ significantly (χ 2 = 2.37, df = 4, p > 0.05) across Wards' selected villages. However, most respondents (87%, n = 40) did not use indigenous woody plants for tobacco curing and 85% (n = 39) respondents did not collect wood from CNP for that cause.

Local Knowledge and Perspectives on the Effectiveness of Forest Resource By-Laws and the Institutional Frameworks in Forest Resource Management
All key informants from Zimbabwe's government ministries, Chimanimani Ru- Most of the household respondents (95.7%, n = 44) reported that forest resource management by-laws were present and a few (4.3%, n = 2) reported that they were not aware of any forest resource management by-laws. There was a significant difference (χ 2 = 26.76, df = 4, p < 0.001) between the awareness of the presence of forest resource by-laws and by-laws in place. The respondents reported different by-laws that were in place for forest resource management like conservation of woody vegetation under both communal and protected area management. About 35% (n = 16) of the respondents stated the conservation of natural resources as the key regulatory requirement they know, 32.6% (n = 15) stated "avoidance of" deforestation, 17.4% (n = 8) mentioned "avoidance of" wildfires and a few (10.9%, n = 5) reported "avoidance of" siltation as strategies to conserve forest resources. In contrast 4.3% (n = 2) reported they were not aware of any by-laws in place for natural resource management. However, there were no significant differences in responses to forest resource management by-laws that respondents are aware of (χ 2 = 13.245, df = 8, p > 0.05) across the Wards'study villages.
Most of the respondents (54.3%, n = 25) reported that forest resource management by-laws were not effective at all, while 39.1% (n = 18) said they were effective and 2.2% (n = 1) reported that they were very effective. However, 4.3% (n = 2) of study respondents opted not to comment on the effectiveness of the rules and regulations of forest resource management. There was a significant difference (χ 2 = 54.94, df = 12, p < 0.001) between awareness of the existing by-laws and their perceived effectiveness across the sampled Wards' study villages.

Discussion
Different indigenous woody species have different uses depending on the preference of the users. The study highlighted that most respondents preferred to use two or more of the indigenous woody species from CNP, namely; Acacia, Bauhinia, Brachystegia, Combretum, Pericopsis and Terminalia genera. The study findings indicated that woody species extracted from the protected CNP were selected based on genotype. The selective extraction of woody species tends to reduce the abundances of hardwood species leaving the softwood types. Elsewhere in Mukuvisi Woodlands, Harare, Zimbabwe, selective logging through illegal wood harvesting led to degradation of the Miombo woodlands as evidenced by the decline in the preferred woody genera such as the Julbernardia and Brachystegia (Muboko et al., 2014). In the Chipinge District, Zimbabwe, in an area located nearby and to the west of the present study area, the pepper-bark tree (Warburgia salutaris), which is well known for its medicinal properties, was reported near extirpation because of over harvesting (Mashapa et al., 2019). Bivinia jalbertii (Cobweb seed), a species which yields durable wood poles that can last for many years, and is endemic to the Nyoni Hills near Ngundu, Zimbabwe is also under threat (Mashapa, 2018). However, in some cases respondents indi- As commonly reported from sub-Sahara African studies, the extracted indigenous woody plants from CNP were reported principally for household uses, such as firewood, building and fencing, followed by other purposes like for agriculture, carpentry and carving (Kusimi, 2015;Sloan & Sayer, 2015;Tsai et al., 2019). This is consistent with other studies carried out elsewhere, for instance, Mugabe & Clark (1998) Mutepfa et al. (1998) who stated that thirty one percent of Zimbabwe's total energy consumption is fuelwood, with eighty percent of the energy demands of communal people in rural areas being met by fuelwood.
Thus, preferred woody species are likely being rapidly harvested for firewood in most rural areas of Zimbabwe. However, this may not be surprising as Cunningham & Saigo (1999) observed that in eastern Africa, the demand for firewood is estimated to be ten times the sustainable yield.
It was recorded that forest resource management by-laws were present, and  (Tsai et al., 2019;Acheampong et al., 2018).
Key informants argued that there was less coordination between the relevant institutions responsible for forest resources and woodland management across the study area.
We however observed that most household respondents were aware of the existence of institutions that enforce conservation by-laws. Nevertheless, key informants reported the existence of resistance towards the by-laws that govern forest resource use in their areas and CNP. For example, EMA Officers for Chimanimani District were concerned that so many orders were given to perpetrators to desist from illegal activities, but these were largely ignored. In that regard, co-management of the protected woodlands involving CNP and the local people is ideal for forest resource conservation. Local people and their indigenous knowledge systems can be co-opted or integrated with conventional science to promote certain sustainable-customary uses of woody vegetation resources by the communal people living at the periphery of protected areas like the CNP.
This may contribute to sustainable development and sound co-management practices, since CNP like most protected areas in southern Africa does not include a component that is strongly linked to communal areas (Murphree, 1993;Murphree, 2005). However, South Africa is a good case study of state protected areas interlinked to community-based natural resource management initiatives with a focus on co-management, benefit sharing, and innovations such as "contractual parks" (Reid & Turner, 2004). Management of contractual parks is carried out in accordance with a joint management agreement devised by a board comprising representatives of both the local community and the national conservation authority (Reid, 2002). For instance, protected areas are known to accumulate dead wood from natural plant-diebacks and due to pest and diseases, and climatic factors like drought and frost. Thus, protected areas like CNP can consider establishing a controlled and transparent system that permits local rural people living at the periphery of the park to collect dead wood from the park.

Conclusion and Recommendations
In this study we aimed to address the following objectives, 1) to identify preferred indigenous woody species, determine the uses and quantities of indigenous woody plants extracted by communities adjacent to the CNP, and 2) assess the local knowledge and perspectives on the effectiveness of forest resource by-laws and the institutional frameworks in forest resource management. Responses on the local knowledge and perspectives on the effectiveness of forest resource by-laws and the institutional frameworks in forest resource management indicated that although most respondents expressed awareness of the laws and institutional frameworks governing forest resources, illegal wood harvesting still occurs. This could explain why varied responses were obtained on the effectiveness of the by-laws put in place to regulate and manage forest resources. To strengthen the effectiveness of forest resource by-laws and the institutional frameworks, we recommend several actions including improvements on coordination and law enforcement efforts, and the reformation of forest resource conservation legislative framework to provide incentives for local communities to cooperate in the conservation of woody species found within protected areas and adjacent areas. This can be achieved by adopting the Communal Area Management Programme for Indigenous Resources (CAMPFIRE) concept which has to a larger extent been largely successful in the wildlife sector in Zimbabwe. There is also need for the introduction of alternative sources of energy, especially renewable energy and making affordable building materials such as cement and iron sheets so that people in the low-income category can afford to use more of these building materials instead of woody vegetation resources. This is expected to curb the demand for indigenous woody plants.