Dark Matter Cosmology and Astrophysics

Hypersphere World-Universe Model (WUM) envisions Matter carried from Universe into World from fourth spatial dimension by Dark Matter Particles (DMPs). Luminous Matter is byproduct of Dark Matter (DM) annihilation. WUM introduces Dark Epoch (spanning from Beginning of World for 0.4 billion years) when only DMPs existed, and Luminous Epoch (ever since for 13.8 billion years). Big Bang discussed in standard cosmological model is, in our view, transition from Dark Epoch to Luminous Epoch due to Rotational Fission of Overspinning DM Supercluster’s Cores and annihilation of DMPs. WUM solves a number of physical problems in contemporary Cosmology and Astrophysics through DMPs and their interactions: Angular Momentum problem in birth and subsequent evolution of Galaxies and Extrasolar systems – how do they obtain it; Fermi Bubbles – two large structures in gamma-rays and X-rays above and below Galactic center; Mysterious Star KIC 8462852 with irregular dimmings; Coronal Heating problem in solar physics – temperature of Sun's corona exceeding that of photosphere by millions of degrees; Cores of Sun and Earth rotating faster than their surfaces; Diversity of Gravitationally-Rounded Objects in Solar system and their Internal Heat; Lightning Initiation problem – electric fields observed inside thunderstorms are not sufficient to initiate sparks; Terrestrial Gamma-Ray Flashes – bursts of high energy X-rays and gamma rays emanating from Earth. Model makes predictions pertaining to Masses of DMPs, proposes New Types of their Interactions. WUM reveals Inter-Connectivity of Primary Cosmological Parameters and calculates their values, which are in good agreement with the latest results of their measurements.


Introduction
Hypersphere World-Universe Model (WUM) is proposed as an alternative to the prevailing Big Bang Model of standard physical cosmology. WUM is a classical model, and is described by classical notions, which define emergent phenomena. By definition, an emergent phenomenon is a property that is a result of simple interactions that work cooperatively to create a more complex interaction. Physically, simple interactions occur at a microscopic level, and the collective result can be observed at a macroscopic level. WUM introduces classical notions once the very first ensemble of particles has been created at the cosmological time ≅10 −18 s (state of the World at cosmological times < 10 −18 s is best described by Quantum Mechanics). WUM is a natural continuation of Classical Physics.
The Hypersphere World-Universe model is the only cosmological model in existence that:  Is consistent with the Law of conservation of angular momentum, and answers the following questions: why is the orbital momentum of Jupiter larger than rotational momentum of Sun, and how did Milky Way galaxy and Solar system obtain their substantial orbital angular momentum?  Reveals the Inter-connectivity of primary cosmological parameters of the World (Age, Size, Hubble's parameter, Newtonian parameter of gravitation, Critical energy density, Concentration of Intergalactic Plasma, Temperature of the Microwave Background Radiation, Temperature of the Far-Infrared Background Radiation peak) and calculates their values, which are in good agreement with experimental results;  Considers Fermi Bubbles (FBs) built up from Dark Matter Particles (DMPs), and explains X-rays and gamma-rays radiated by FBs as a result of DMPs annihilation;  Solves Coronal heating problem that relates to the question of why the temperature of the Solar corona is millions of degrees higher than that of the photosphere. In WUM, the Solar corona is made up of DMPs, and the plas-  MBR is part of the Medium; it then follows that the Medium is the absolute frame of reference. Relative to MBR rest frame, Milky Way galaxy and Sun are moving with the speed of 552 and 370 km/s respectively [5].
Theory of a Rotationally Elastic Medium. Long time ago it was realized that there are no transverse waves in the Aether, and hence the Aether could not be an elastic matter of an ordinary type. In 1846 James McCullagh proposed a theory of a rotationally elastic medium, i.e. a medium in which every particle resists absolute rotation [20]. This theory produces equations analogous to ME. WUM is based on Maxwell's equations, and McCullagh's theory is a good fit for description of the Medium.
The Medium consists of stable elementary particles with lifetimes longer than the age of the World: protons, electrons, photons, neutrinos, and dark matter particles. For all particles under consideration we use the following characteristics:  Type of particle (fermion or boson);  "Mass" that is equivalent to "Rest energy" with the constant c 2 ;  Electrical charge.
The total energy density of the Medium is 2/3 of the overall energy density of the World (see Section 2.8). Superclusters, Galaxies, Extrasolar systems, planets, moons, etc. are made of the same particles. The energy density of Macroobjects adds up to 1/3 of the total energy density of the World throughout the World's evolution [5].

Structure of Macroobjects
In our view, all Macroobjects (MOs) of the World (galaxies, extrasolar systems, planets, and moons) possess the following properties [8]:  Macroobject nuclei are made up of self-annihilating DMFs;  MOs contain other particles, including DM and baryonic matter, in shells surrounding their nuclei. WUM predicts existence of 5 types of self-annihilating DMPs with masses of 1.3 TeV, 9.6 GeV, 70 MeV, 340 keV, and 3.7 keV (see Section 4.1). The signs of annihilation of these particles are found in the observed gamma-ray spectra which we connect with the structure of MOs (nuclei and shells composition). Annihilation of those DMPs can give rise to any combination of gamma-ray lines. Thus, the diversity of Very High Energy gamma-ray sources in the World has a clear explanation in frames of WUM [8].

Nucleosynthesis. Large-Scale Structures. Ultimate Fate
Nucleosynthesis of all luminous elements (including light elements) occurs inside of DM Cores of all Macroobjects during their evolution. The theory of Stellar nucleosynthesis is well developed, starting with the publication of a celebrated B 2 FH review paper [21]. With respect to WUM, this theory should be ex-V. S. Netchitailo Journal of High Energy Physics, Gravitation and Cosmology panded to include annihilation of heavy DMFs in MOs' Cores (see Section 4.1).
The amount of energy produced due to this process is sufficiently high to create all elements inside of MOs' [5].
Formation and Evolution of Large-Scale Structures. All Macroobjects of the World have Cores made up of different DMPs. The matter creation is occurring homogeneously in all points of the World. It follows that new stars can be created inside of galaxies, new galaxies can be created inside of superclusters, which can arise in the World. Structures form in parallel around different Cores made of different DMPs. Formation of galaxies and stars is not a process that concluded ages ago; instead, it is ongoing [5].
Ultimate Fate of the World. The Universe is continuously creating Matter in the World. Assuming an Eternal Universe, the numbers of cosmological structures and their size on all levels will increase. The temperature of the Medium will asymptotically reach zero [1].

Fundamental Parameters and Basic Units
It is the main goal of WUM to develop a Model based on two dimensionless Fundamental Parameters only: the constant α and the time-varying parameter Q, which is a measure of the Size and Age of the World. In WUM we often use well-known physical parameters, keeping in mind that all of them can be expressed through the Basic Units. Taking the relative values of physical parameters in terms of the Basic Units we can express all dimensionless parameters of the World through two Fundamental Parameters α and Q in various rational exponents, as well as small integer numbers and π.
To define the values of the constant α and a we analyze the history of the Classical Physics [10]:  The electrodynamic constant c in Maxwell's equations was measured by Weber and Kohlrausch in 1857 [22];  Rydberg constant 3 is a physical constant relating to atomic spectra. The constant first arose in 1888 as an empirical fitting parameter in the Rydberg formula for the hydrogen spectral series [23]. As of 2018, R ∞ is the most accurately measured Fundamental constant;  Electron Charge-to-Mass Ratio e e m is a Quantity in experimental physics.
It bears significance because the electron mass e m cannot be measured directly. The e e m ratio of an electron was successfully calculated by J. J.
Thomson in 1897 [24]. We define it after Thomson: T e R e m ≡ ;  Planck constant h, which is generally associated with the behavior of microscopically small systems, was introduced and measured by Max Planck in 1901 based on statistical thermodynamic analysis of the black-body radiation [25];  The magnetic constant: were measured and could be calculated before Quantum Mechanics. The calculated constant a is the basic unit of size in WUM. It is worth to note that the constant α was later named "Sommerfeld's constant" and then "Fine-structure constant".
Below we will refer to the following Basic Units:  frequency 0 c a ν = .

Inter-Connectivity of Primary Cosmological Parameters
The constancy of the universe fundamental constants, including Newtonian constant of gravitation and Planck mass, is now commonly accepted, although has never been firmly established as a fact. All conclusions on the (almost) constancy of the Newtonian parameter of gravitation are model-dependent. A commonly held opinion states that gravity has no established relation to other fundamental forces, so it does not appear possible to calculate it from other constants that can be measured more accurately, as is done in some other areas of physics. WUM holds that there indeed exist relations between all primary cosmological parameters that depend on dimensionless time-varying quantity Q, which equals to: [4]. The model develops a mathematical framework that allows for direct calculation of the following primary cosmological parameters through Q [7]:  Newtonian parameter of gravitation G:

Hypersphere World
The physical laws we observe appear to be independent of the Worlds' curvature in the fourth spatial dimension due to the very small value of the dimen-Journal of High Energy Physics, Gravitation and Cosmology

Critical Energy Density
The principal idea of WUM is that the energy density of the World W As the conclusion, Gravity, Space and Time are all emergent phenomena [5].
In this regard, it is worth to recall the Albert Einstein quote: "When forced to summarize the theory of relativity in one sentence: time and space and gravitation have no separate existence from matter".    This value is in good agreement with experimentally found value of 0.049 ± 0.013 [29]. It is worth to note that the relative energy density of protons in Luminous Epoch is constant all time and proportional to the Fundamental constant α .

Microwave Background Radiation
According to WUM, the black body spectrum of MBR is due to thermodynamic equilibrium of photons with low density intergalactic plasma consisting of protons and electrons.
which is in excellent agreement with experimentally measured value of 2.72548 ± 0.00057 K [30]. We are not aware of any other model that allows calculation of MBR temperature with such accuracy. Bonetti, et al. [31] we can call this amount of energy the rest energy of photons that equals to

Energy-Varying Photons
The above value is in good agreement with the value 14 2.2 10 eV ph E − ×  estimated by L. Bonetti, et al. [31]. It is more relevant to call ph E the minimum energy of photons which can pass through the Intergalactic plasma. It is worth to note that ph E is varying in time:

Mass-Varying Neutrinos
It is now established that there are three different types of neutrino: electronic e ν , muonic µ ν , and tauonic τ ν . Neutrino oscillations imply that neutrinos Journal of High Energy Physics, Gravitation and Cosmology Let's assume that muonic neutrino's mass indeed equals to We assume that electronic neutrino mass equals to [3]:

Cosmic Far-Infrared Background
The cosmic Far-Infrared Background (FIRB), which was announced in 1998, is part of the Cosmic Infrared Background, with wavelengths near 100 microns that is the peak power wavelength of the black-body radiation at temperature 29 K. According to WUM, large cosmic grains are responsible for the FIRB [3].
This result is in an excellent agreement with experimentally measured value of  A light-travel time distance to the source of FRB LTT d equals to [7]:

Time Delay of Fast Radio Bursts
Let's calculate photons' traveling time ph t considering that the minimum energy of photons ph E is much smaller than the energy of photons E γ : All observed FRBs have redshifts 1 z < . It means that we can use the Hubble's law: Photons' minimum energy squared at radius r between emit R and 0 R equals According to WUM, photons' energy E γ on the way to the observer can be expressed by the following equation [6]: Taking 0.492 z = [29] we get the calculated value of photons' time delay which is in good agreement with experimentally measured value [29]: It is worth to note that in our calculations there is no need in the dispersion measure, and time delay depends on the redshift only.

Multicomponent Dark Matter
DMPs might be observed in Centers of Macroobjects has drawn many new researchers to the field in the last forty years. Indirect effects in cosmic rays and gamma-ray background from the annihilation of cold DM in the form of heavy stable neutral leptons in Galaxies were considered in pioneer articles [50]- [55].
A mechanism whereby DM in protostellar halos plays the role in the formation of the first stars is discussed by D. Spolyar, K. Freese, and P. Gondolo [56]. Heat from neutralino DM annihilation is shown to overwhelm any cooling mechanism, consequently impeding the star formation process. A "dark star'' powered by DM annihilation instead of nuclear fusion may result. Dark stars are in hydrostatic and thermal equilibrium, but with an unusual power source. Weakly Interacting Massive Particles (WIMPs) are among the best candidates for DM [57]. Important cosmological problems like Dark Matter and Dark Energy could be, in principle, solved through extended gravity. This is stressed, for example, in the famous paper of Prof. C. Corda [58].

Macroobjects Cores Made up of Dark Matter Particles
According to WUM, Macrostructures of the World (Superclusters, Galaxies, Journal of High Energy Physics, Gravitation and Cosmology Extrasolar Systems) have Nuclei made up of DMFs, which are surrounded by Shells composed of DM and baryonic matter. The shells envelope one another, like a Russian doll. The lighter a particle, the greater the radius and the mass of its shell. Innermost shells are the smallest and are made up of heaviest particles; outer shells are larger and consist of lighter particles [11]. Table 1  700 million light-years from Earth. They found an extreme core with a mass of 4 × 10 10 solar masses at the center of Holm 15A [60]. The calculated maximum mass of galaxy Core of 6 × 10 10 solar masses (see Table 1) is in good agreement with the experimentally found value [60].

Weak Interaction
The widely discussed models for nonbaryonic DM are based on the Cold DM hypothesis, and corresponding particles are commonly assumed to be WIMPs, which interact via gravity and any other force (or forces), potentially not part of the standard model itself, which is as weak as or weaker than the weak nuclear force, but also non-vanishing in its strength (Wikipedia. Weakly interacting massive particles). It follows that a new weak force needs to exist, providing interaction is an extrapolated value of G at the Beginning of the World ( 1 Q = ). Q in the present Epoch equals to [5]: The range of the gravity equals to the size of the World R: 26 1.34558 10 m R a Q = × = × In WUM, weak interaction is characterized by the parameter W G : which is about 30 orders of magnitude greater than G. The range of the weak interaction W R in the present Epoch equals to: that is much greater than the range of the weak nuclear force. Calculated concentration of Dions D n in the largest shell of Superclusters: shows that a distance between particles is around ~10 −5 m, which is much smaller than W R . Thus, the introduced weak interaction between DMPs will provide integrity of all DM shells. In our view, weak interaction between particles DMF3 provides integrity of Fermi Bubbles (see Section 6.7).

Dark Epoch
Dark The process described above is the formation of the DM Core of a Supercluster [11]. We estimate the number of Supercluster Cores at present Epoch to be around ~10 3 . DMPs supply not only additional mass ( (see next Section). In our opinion, all Supercluster Cores had undergone rotational fission at approximately the same cosmological time [11].

Rotational Fission
According to WUM, the rotational angular momentum of overspinning objects before rotational fission equals to [11]: where M is a mass of overspinning object, R is its radius, δ is the density ratio inside of the object: where for parameters G, M, R we use their values in the present Epoch.
Local Supercluster (LS) is a mass concentration of galaxies containing the Local Group, which in turn contains the Milky Way galaxy. At least 100 galaxy groups and clusters are located within its diameter of 110 million light-years.
Considering parameters of Dions' shell (see Table 1 galaxies like Milky Way could be generated at the same time. Considering that density of galaxies in the LS falls off with the square of the distance from its center near the Virgo Cluster, and the location of MW on the outskirts of the LS [62], the actual number of created galaxies could be much larger. The mass-to-light ratio of the LS is about 300 times larger than that of the Solar ratio. Similar ratios are obtained for other superclusters [63]. These facts support the rotational fission mechanism proposed above. In 1933, Fritz Zwicky investigated the velocity dispersion of Coma cluster and found a surprisingly high mass-to-light ratio (~500). He concluded: if this would be confirmed, we would get the surprising result that dark matter is present in much greater amount than V. S. Netchitailo Journal of High Energy Physics, Gravitation and Cosmology luminous matter [64]. These ratios are one of the main arguments in favor of presence of large amounts of Dark Matter in the World.
Analogous calculations for MW Core based on parameters of DMF3 shell (see  L angular momenta released during detonation are produced by Overspinning Core (OC). The detonation process does not destroy OC; it's rather gravitational hyper-flares;  Size, mass, composition, orb L and rot L of satellite cores depend on local density fluctuations at the edge of OC and cohesion of the outer shell. Consequently, the diversity of satellite cores has a clear explanation. WUM refers to OC detonation process as Gravitational Burst (GB), analogous to Gamma Ray Burst [6]. In frames of WUM, the repeating GBs can be explained the following way:  As the result of GB, the OC loses a small fraction of its mass and a large part of its rotational angular momentum;  After GB, the Core absorbs new DMPs. Its mass increases per-velocity star S5-HVS1 with mass about 2.3 solar masses that is located at a distance of ~9 kpc from the Sun. When integrated backwards in time, the orbit of the star points unambiguously to the Galactic Centre, implying that S5-HVS1 was kicked away from Sgr A* with a velocity of ~1800 km/s and travelled for 4.8 Myr to the current location. So far, this is the only hyper-velocity star confidently associated with the Galactic Centre [68]. In frames of the developed Model this discovery can be explained by Gravitational Burst of the overspinning Core of the Milky Way 4.8 million years ago, which gave birth to S5-HVS1 with the speed higher than the escape velocity of the Core. C. J. Clarke, et al. observed CI Tau, a young 2 million years old star. CI Tau is located about 500 light years away in a highly-productive stellar "nursery" region of the galaxy. They discovered that the Extrasolar System contains four gas giant planets that are only 2 million years old [69], amount of time that is too short for formation of gas giants according to prevailing theories.

Luminous Epoch
In frames of the developed Rotational Fission model, this discovery can be explained by Gravitational Burst of the overspinning Core of the Milky Way two million years ago, which gave birth to CI Tau system with all planets generated V. S. Netchitailo Journal of High Energy Physics, Gravitation and Cosmology at the same time [11].
To summarize,  The rotational fission of macroobject Cores is the most probable process that can generate satellite cores with large orbital momenta in a very short time;  Macrostructures of the World form from the top (superclusters) down to galaxies, extrasolar systems, planets, and moons;  Gravitational waves can be a product of rotational fission of overspinning Macroobject Cores;  Hypersphere World-Universe model can serve as a basis for Transient Gravitational Astrophysics.

Distribution of the World's Energy Density
According to WUM, the total Dions relative energy density Dion ρ in terms of p ρ equals to [11]: The total baryonic energy density B ρ is: which is in excellent agreement with the commonly adopted value of 137.035999.
It follows that there is a direct correlation between constants α and e p m m expressed by the obtained equation. As shown, e p m m is not an independent constant but is instead derived from α [11].
As the conclusion, according to WUM:  The World's energy density is inversely proportional to Fundamental parameter Q in all cosmological times;  The particles relative energy densities are proportional to Fundamental constant α in Luminous Epoch.

Macroobject Shell Model
In our view, Macroobjects of the World possess the following properties [8]:

Multiwavelength Pulsars
According to WUM, Macroobjects Cores made up of self-annihilating DMF1 and DMF2 have maximum mass and minimum size which are equal to parameters of neutron stars [8]. It follows that Gamma-Ray Pulsars might be, in fact, rotating DMF1 or DMF2 star. The nuclei of such pulsars may also be made up of their mixture surrounded by shells composed of other DMPs. Gamma-Ray Pulsar multiwavelength radiation depends on the composition of Nucleus and shells [8]. Astronomers hypothesize that the pulsar's lack of GeV emission is due to viewing geometry, with the X-rays originating from synchrotron emission from secondary pairs in the magnetosphere [72].
WUM: Very High Energy pulsed emission from the Crab pulsar can be explained by active area of rotating Star composed of a mixture of annihilating DMF1 (1.3 TeV) and DMF2 (9.6 GeV). Multiwavelength emission from pulsar PSR B1509 can be explained by rotating DMF2 star with an active area irradiating gamma quants with energy 9.6 GeV, which interact with surrounding shells, causing them to glow in X-ray spectrum [8].

Binary Millisecond Pulsars
The . DMF2 star is receiving mass and energy at the rate . When the received power r W is greater than the gamma-ray power irradiated by the active area of the rotating DMF2 star, the decreasing of its period will be observed. Then there is no need to introduce a low-mass companion [8].

Gamma-Ray Bursts
Gamma-Ray Bursts (GRBs) status after 50 years of investigations looks as follows [6]:  The intense radiation of most observed GRBs is believed to be released when a rapidly rotating, high-mass star collapses to form a neutron star, quark star, or black hole;  Short GRBs appear to originate from merger of binary neutron stars;  There are seven known soft gamma repeaters. It means that some GRBs are not catastrophic events.
WUM: The experimental results for GRBs have the following explanation [6]:  Nuclei and shells of galaxies made up of DMPs are responsible for GRBs; Journal of High Energy Physics, Gravitation and Cosmology  GRBs convert energy into radiation through annihilation of DMPs;

 Spectrum of GRBs depends on composition of Nuclei and shells;
 Afterglow is a result of processes developing in the Nuclei and shells after detonation.

Young Stellar Object Dippers
The Mysterious Star KIC 8462852 with its large irregular dimmings is a main-sequence star with a rotation period ∼0.88 day that exhibits no significant Infrared excess. A stellar mass is M = 1.43 M ʘ , luminosity L = 4.68 L ʘ , and radius R = 1.58 R ʘ . While KIC 8462852's age was initially estimated to be hun-

Multiworld
In Section 4.3 we introduced Weak interaction with the parameter , which is about 30 orders of magnitude greater than G. According to Multiworld proposed in WUM [11], Weak interaction defines a Micro-World and its objects with mass about Planck mass are the building blocks of Macroobjects. Below we discuss the main characteristics of a Large-World and Small-World in the Multiworld based on the proposed Extremely-Weak and Super-Weak interaction respectively. Large-World is characterized by the parameter , which is about 10 orders of magnitude greater than G. The range of the extremely-weak interaction EW R in the present epoch equals to [12]: Let's calculate parameters of Large Objects (LOs) made up of self-annihilating DMF1 and DMF2 particles, considering extremely-weak interaction between them.
WUM develops the mathematical framework that allows for the calculation of these parameters [7]. According to WUM, the maximum mass of Macroobjects , which is about 20 orders of magnitude greater than G. The range of the super-weak interaction SW R in the present epoch equals Parameters of Small Objects made up of self-annihilating particles DMF1 and DMF2 considering super-weak interaction between them can be calculated by the same Equations (6.6.1)-(6.6.6) with the replacement of the mass EW M for the mass SW M that equals to: In our view, Fermi Bubbles also contain Small Objects made up of self-annihilating particles DMF1 and DMF2 (see Section 6.7).

Dark Matter Fermi Bubbles
In November 2010, the discovery of two Fermi Bubbles (FBs) emitting gammaand X-rays was announced. FBs extend for about 25 thousand light years above and below the center of the galaxy [82]. The outlines of the bubbles are quite sharp, and the bubbles themselves glow in nearly uniform gamma rays over their colossal surfaces. Gamma-ray spectrum measured by the Fermi Large Area Telescope at Galactic latitude ≥ 10˚ has an exponential cutoff at energies ~100 GeV. However, the FBs gamma-ray spectrum at latitude ≤ 10˚, without showing any sign of cutoff up to around 1 TeV in the latest tentative results, remains unconstrained [83]. Years after the discovery of FBs, their origin and the nature of the gamma-ray emission remain unresolved.
M. Su and D. P. Finkbeiner identify a gamma-ray cocoon feature in the southern Fermi bubble, a jet-like feature along the cocoon's axis of symmetry, and another directly opposite the Galactic center in the north. Both the cocoon and jet-like feature have a hard spectrum from 1 to 100 GeV. If confirmed, these jets are the first resolved gamma-ray jets ever seen [84].
G. Ponti, et al. report prominent X-ray structures on intermediate scales (hundreds of parsecs) above and below the plane, which appear to connect the Galactic Centre region to the Fermi bubbles. They propose that these structures, which they term the Galactic Centre "chimneys", constitute exhaust channels through which energy and mass, injected by a quasi-continuous train of episodic events at the Galactic Centre, are transported from the central few parsecs to the base of the FBs [85]. D. Hooper and T. R. Slatyer discuss two emission mechanisms in the FBs: in-Journal of High Energy Physics, Gravitation and Cosmology verse Compton scattering and annihilating DM [86]. In their opinion, the second emission mechanism must be responsible for the bulk of the low-energy, low-latitude emission. The spectrum and angular distribution of the signal is consistent with that predicted from ~10 GeV DMPs annihilating to leptons. This component is similar to the excess GeV emission previously reported by D.
Hooper from the Galactic Center [87]. It is worth to note that a similar excess of gamma-rays was observed in the central region of the Andromeda galaxy (M31). A. McDaniel, T. Jeltema, and S. Profumo calculated the expected emission across the electromagnetic spectrum in comparison with available observational data from M31 and found that the best fitting models are with the DMP mass 11 GeV [88].
According to H.-Y. Karen Yang, M. Ruszkowski, and E. G. Zweibel, for understanding the physical origin of the FBs, three major questions need to be answered:  First, what is the emission mechanism? The bubbles can either be hadronic, where the gamma rays are produced by inelastic collisions between cosmic-ray protons and the thermal nuclei via decay of neutral pions, or leptonic, where the gamma rays are generated by inverse-Compton scattering of the interstellar radiation field by cosmic-ray electrons;  Second, what activity at the Galactic Center triggered the event-are the bubble associated with nuclear star formation or active galactic nucleus activity?  Third, where are the Cosmic rays accelerated? They could either be accelerated at the Galactic Center and transported to the surface of the bubbles or accelerated in-situ by shocks or turbulence. Note however that not all combinations of the above three considerations would make a successful model because of constraints given by the hard spectrum of the observed bubbles [89]. WUM explains FBs the following way:  Core of Milky Way galaxy is made up of DM particles: DMF1 (1.3 TeV), DMF2 (9.6 GeV), and DMF3 (3.7 keV). The second component (DMF2) explains the excess GeV emission reported by Dan Hooper from the Galactic Center [86]. Core rotates with surface speed at equator close to the escape velocity between Gravitational Bursts (GBs), and over the escape velocity at the moments of GBs;  Bipolar astrophysical jets (which are astronomical phenomena where outflows of matter are emitted as an extended beams along the axis of rotation [90]) of DMPs are ejected from the rotating Core into the Galactic halo along the rotation axis of the Galaxy;  Due to self-annihilation of DMF1 and DMF2, these beams are gamma-ray jets [84]. The prominent X-ray structures on intermediate scales (hundreds of parsecs) above and below the plane (named the Galactic Centre "chimneys" [85]) are the result of the self-annihilation of DMF3;  FBs are bubbles with boundary between them and Intergalactic Medium that  Comparison of (6.7.1) with (6.7.2) shows that if the density of the DMF3 particles in FBs is larger than 1 6 FB ρ , then the distance between them is less than W R . It is a reasonable assumption considering that the shell of DMF3 particles in the Core of galaxy is the biggest in size and the largest in mass. As the result:  Weak interaction between DMF3 particles provides integrity of Fermi Bubbles;  FBs made up of DMF3 particles resembles a honeycomb filled with DMF1 and DMF2;  FBs radiate X-rays due to the annihilation of DMF3 particles with concentra-  [7] and the minimum density of DMOs 3 3 min 10 kg m ρ ≅ [11] we can calculate the parameters of Large Objects (LOs) according to Equations (6.6.1)-(6.6.6):

Solar System
The most widely accepted model of Solar System formation, known as the Nebular hypothesis, was first proposed in 1734 by Emanuel Swedenborg [91], and later elaborated and expanded upon by Immanuel Kant in 1755 in his "Universal Natural History and Theory of the Heavens" [92]. Lunar origin fission hypothesis was proposed by George Darwin in 1879 to explain the origin of the Moon by rapidly spinning Earth, on which equatorial gravitative attraction was nearly overcome by centrifugal force [93]. Donald U. Wise made a detailed analysis of this hypothesis in 1966 and concluded that "it V. S. Netchitailo might seem prudent to include some modified form of rotational fission among our working hypothesis" [94]. Solar fission theory was proposed by Louis Jacot in 1951 [95]. Tom Van Flandern further extended this theory in 1993 [96]. Neither L. Jacot nor T. Van Flandern proposed an origin for the Sun itself. It seems that they followed the standard Nebular hypothesis of formation of the Sun. In WUM we concentrate on furthering the Solar Fission theory [11].
Not one of existing models solves the Angular Momentum problem-why is the orbital momentum of Jupiter larger than rotational momentum of the Sun?

Angular Momentum
Considering rotational and orbital angular momentum of all gravitationally-rounded objects in the Solar system, from Mimas, a small moon of Saturn (3.75 × 10 19 kg), to the Sun itself (2 × 10 30 kg) [11], we find that  The rotational momentum of the Sun is smaller than Jupiter's, Saturn's, Uranus's, and Neptune's orbital momentum;  The rotational momentum of the Earth is substantially smaller than Moon's orbital momentum.
From the point of view of Fission model, the prime object is transferring some of its rotational momentum to orbital momentum of the satellite. It follows that at the moment of creation the rotational momentum of the prime object should exceed the orbital momentum of its satellite.
As we pointed out in Section 5.  Nucleus and Radiative zone contain practically all Sun's mass [97].
In our opinion, the Sun has an Inner Core (Nucleus made up of DMF1) whose radius is 20% -25% of the solar radius, and an Outer Core-the Radiative zone.
We then calculate the Solar Core rotational angular momentum SC rot L : Let's contemplate the structure of the Earth. According to the standard model, it is composed of:  An inner core and an outer core that extend from the center to about 45% of the Earth radius with density ;  Inner core, outer core, and lower mantle contain practically all of the Earth's mass [98].
Very little is known about the lower mantle apart from that it appears to be relatively seismically homogeneous. Outer core-lower mantle boundary has a sharp drop of density ( ) 3 3 9.9 5.6 10 kg m → × [98].
In our opinion, lower mantle is a part of the Earth's core. It could be significantly different 4.6 billion years ago, since during this time it was gradually filled with all chemical elements produced by Earth's core due to DMF1 annihilation.
Considering the Earth's core with radius As the conclusion, the overspinning Core of the Sun can give birth to planetary cores, and they can generate cores of moons through the Rotational Fission mechanism [11].

Dark Matter Cores of Macroobjects
The following facts support the existence of DM Cores in Macroobjects [11]:  Cores irradiate products of annihilation, which carry away excessive angular momentum. The Solar wind is the result of this mechanism.

Gravitationally-Rounded Objects Internal Heat
Earth. The analysis of Sun's heat for planets in Solar system yields the effective temperature of Earth of 255 K [101]. The actual mean surface temperature of Earth is 288 K [102]. The higher actual temperature of Earth is due to energy generated internally by the planet itself. According to the standard model, the Earth's internal heat is produced mostly through radioactive decay. The major heat-producing isotopes within Earth are K-40, U-238, and Th-232. The mean global heat loss from Earth is 44.2 TW [103]. The Earth's Uranium has been thought to be produced in one or more supernovae over 6 billion years ago [104].  [106].
In our opinion, all chemical products of the Earth including isotopes K-40, U-238, Th-232, and Pu-244, are produced within the Earth as the result of DMF1 annihilation [11]. They arrive in the Crust of the Earth due to convection currents in the mantle carrying heat and isotopes from the interior to the planet's surface [107]. Journal of High Energy Physics, Gravitation and Cosmology Jupiter radiates more heat than it receives from the Sun [108]. Giant planets like Jupiter are hundreds of degrees warmer than current temperature models predict. Until now, the extremely warm temperatures observed in Jupiter's atmosphere (about 970 degrees C [109]) have been difficult to explain, due to lack of a known heat source [12]. Saturn radiates 2.5 times more energy than it receives from the Sun [110]; Uranus-1.1 times [111]; Neptune-2.6 times [112].
S. Kamata, et al. report that "many icy Solar System bodies possess subsurface oceans. To maintain an ocean, Pluto needs to retain heat inside". Kamata, et al. show that "the presence of a thin layer of gas hydrates at the base of the ice shell can explain both the long-term survival of the ocean and the maintenance of shell thickness contrasts. Gas hydrates act as a thermal insulator, preventing the ocean from completely freezing while keeping the ice shell cold and immobile. The most likely guest gas is methane" [113].
According to WUM, the internal heating of all gravitationally-rounded objects of the Solar system is due to DMPs annihilation in their cores made up of DMF1 (1.3 TeV). The amount of energy produced due to this process is sufficiently high to heat up the objects. New DMF1 freely penetrate through the entire objects' envelope, get absorbed into the cores, and continuously support DMF1 annihilation. Objects' cores are essentially Dark Matter Reactors fueled by DMF1 [11].
In our opinion, all chemical elements are produced by Macroobjects themselves as the result of DMPs annihilation. The diversity of all gravitationally-rounded objects of the Solar System is explained by the differences in their cores (mass, size, composition). The DM Reactors inside of all gravitationally-rounded objects (including Earth) provide sufficient energy for all geological processes on planets and moons. All gravitationally-rounded objects in hydrostatic equilibrium, down to Mimas in Solar system, prove the validity of WUM [11].

The Evolution of the Sun
By 1950s, stellar astrophysicists had worked out the physical principles governing the structure and evolution of stars [114]. According to these principles, the Sun's luminosity had to change over time, with the young Sun being about 30% less luminous than today. The long-term evolution of the bolometric solar lu- , it is easy to find that the young Sun's output was 67% of what it is today [12]. Literature commonly refers to the value of 70% [117] [118]. This result supports the developed model of the structure and evolution of the Sun [114].

Pioneer Anomaly
According to Fractal Cosmology, Macroobjects are surrounded by transitional regions, in which the density decreases rapidly to the point of the zero level of the fractal structure [119] characterized by radius f R and density f ρ , that satisfy the following equation for

Solar Corona
According to the standard model, the visible surface of the Sun, the photosphere, is the layer below which the Sun becomes opaque to visible light. Above the photosphere visible sunlight is free to propagate into space, and almost all of its energy escapes the Sun entirely. Above the photosphere lies the chromosphere that is about 2500 km thick with temperature that increases gradually with altitude to around 2 × 10 4 K near the top [121]. The particle density decreases Corona is an aura of plasma that surrounds the Sun and other stars. The Sun's corona extends at least 8 million kilometers into outer space [122] and is most easily seen during a total solar eclipse. Spectroscopy measurements indicate strong ionization and plasma temperature in excess of 10 6 K [123]. The corona emits radiation mainly in the X-rays, observable only from space. The plasma is transparent to its own radiation and to solar radiation passing through it, therefore we say that it is optically-thin. The gas, in fact, is very rarefied, and the photon mean free-path by far overcomes all other length-scales, including the typical sizes of the coronal features.
J. T. Schmelz made the following comment on the composition of Solar corona: Along with temperature and density, the elemental abundance is a basic parameter required by astronomers to understand and model any physical system. The abundances of the solar corona are known to differ from those of the solar photosphere [124].
Coronal heating problem in solar physics relates to the question of why the temperature of the Solar corona is millions of degrees higher than that of the photosphere. The high temperatures require energy to be carried from the solar interior to the corona by non-thermal processes.
In our opinion, the origin of the Solar corona plasma is not the coronal heat- The following experimental results speak in favor of this model [11]:  The corona emits radiation mainly in the X-rays due to the annihilation of DMF3;  The plasma is transparent to its own radiation and to the radiation coming from below;  The elemental composition of the Solar corona and the Solar photosphere are known to differ;  During the impulsive stage of Solar flares, radio waves, hard X-rays, and gamma rays with energy above 100 GeV are emitted [125]. In our view, it is the result of enormous density fluctuations of DMF1 and DMF2 in the Solar corona and their annihilation;  Assuming the particle density in the low corona 10 15 m −3 and mass of DMF1:  that is equal to the density of the fractal structure (7.6.1);  A distance between DMF1 is about 10 −5 m that is much smaller than the range of the weak interaction of DMPs W R (4.3);  At the same density of the fractal structure, distance between DMF2 with mass 26

Geocorona and Planetary Coronas
The geocorona is the luminous part of the outermost region of the Earth's atmosphere that extends to at least 640,000 km from the Earth [126]. It is seen primarily via far-ultraviolet light (Lyman-alpha) from the Sun that is scattered by neutral hydrogen.
Far-ultraviolet photons in the geocorona have been observed out to a distance of approximately 100,000 km from the Earth [127]. The first high-quality and wide-field-of-view image of Earth's corona of 243,000 km was obtained by Hisaki, the first interplanetary microspacecraft [128]. Hisaki with its extreme ultraviolet spectrometer EXCEED acquires spectral images (52 -148 nm) of the atmospheres of planets from Earth orbit and has provided quasi-continuous remote sensing observations of the geocorona since 2013 [129]. The most popular explanation of this geocoronal emission is the scattering of Solar Far-Ultraviolet (FUV) photons by exospheric hydrogen.
X-rays from Earth's geocorona were first detected by Chandra X-ray Observatory in 1999 [130]. X-rays were observed in the range of energies 0.08 -10 keV [129]. The main mechanism explaining the geocoronal X-rays is that they are caused by collisions between neutral atoms in the geocorona with carbon, oxygen and nitrogen ions that are streaming away from the Sun in the solar wind [130] [131] [132]. This process is called "charge exchange", since an electron is exchanged between neutral atoms in geocorona and ions in the solar wind.
X-rays from planets were also observed by Chandra [130]. According to NASA:  The X-rays from Venus and, to some extent, the Earth, are due to the fluorescence of solar X-rays striking the atmosphere;  Fluorescent X-rays from oxygen atoms in the Martian atmosphere probe heights similar to those on Venus. A huge Martian dust storm was in progress when the Chandra observations were made. The intensity of the X-rays did not change during the dust storm;  Jupiter has an environment capable of producing X-rays in a different manner because of its substantial magnetic field. X-rays are produced when high-energy particles from the Sun get trapped in its magnetic field and accelerated toward the polar regions where they collide with atoms in Jupiter's atmosphere;  Like Jupiter, Saturn has a strong magnetic field, so it was expected that Sa-Journal of High Energy Physics, Gravitation and Cosmology turn would also show a concentration of X-rays toward the poles. However, Chandra's observation revealed instead an increased X-ray brightness in the equatorial region. Furthermore, Saturn's X-ray spectrum was found to be similar to that of X-rays from the Sun.
V. I. Shematovich and D. V. Bisikalo gave the following explanation of the planetary coronas [133]: The measurements reveal that planetary coronas contain both a fraction of thermal neutral particles with a mean kinetic energy corresponding to the exospheric temperature and a fraction of hot neutral particles with mean kinetic energy much higher than the exospheric temperature. These suprathermal (hot) atoms and molecules are a direct manifestation of the non-thermal processes taking place in the atmospheres.
In our opinion, the Planetary Coronas are similar to the Solar Corona [11]:  At the distance of 640,000 km from the Earth [126], atoms and molecules are so far apart that they can travel hundreds of kilometers without colliding with one another. Thus, the exosphere no longer behaves like a gas, and the particles constantly escape into space. In our view, FUV radiation and X-rays are the consequence of DMF3 annihilation;  All planets and some observed moons (Europa, Io, Io Plasma Torus, Titan) have X-rays in upper atmosphere of the planets, similar to the Solar Corona;  The calculated density of the Earth's fractal structure is in good agreement with experimental results for atmosphere density at 100 km altitude [12];  The Geocorona is a stable Shell around the Earth with inner radius

High-Energy Atmospheric Physics. Ball Lightning
Lightning Initiation Problem. Years of balloon, aircraft, and rocket observations have never found large enough electric fields inside thunderstorms to make a spark. And yet lightnings strike the Earth about 4 million times per day. This has led to the cosmic-ray model of lightning initiation [134] [135].
Terrestrial Gamma-Ray Flashes (TGFs) were first detected by chance by NASA's Earth-orbiting Compton gamma ray telescope. Compton was searching for GRBs from exploding stars, when it unexpectedly began detecting very strong bursts of high energy X-rays and gamma rays, coming from Earth [130].
There are two leading models of TGF formation: Lightning leader emission and Dark Lightning [134], but they still don't account for  A bright TGF observed by a spacecraft in the middle of Sahara Desert on a nice day. The nearest thunderstorms were ~1000 miles away [136];  An ultraviolet telescope installed on the Russian satellite Lomonosov has registered several powerful explosions of light in the Earth's atmosphere at an V. S. Netchitailo Journal of High Energy Physics, Gravitation and Cosmology altitude of several dozen kilometers in clear weather [137]. Additionally, in frames of existing models it is difficult to explain the following results [12]:  Unusual surges of radiation at 511 keV when there were no thunderstorms;  Beams of antimatter (positrons) produced above thunderstorms on Earth;  A gamma-ray flash coming down from the overhead thundercloud;  Some lightnings produce X-rays and others do not;  Explosive production of energetic particles observed from space;  The spectra of TGFs at very high energies .
According to WUM, the characteristics of Geocorona are similar to the characteristics of the Solar Corona (see Section 7.6). As the result of a large fluctuation of DMPs in Geocorona and their annihilation, X-rays and gamma-rays are going not only up and out of the Earth, but also down to the Earth's surface. In our view, TGFs are, in fact, well-known GRBs [7]. The spectra of TGFs at very high energies can be explained by DMF1 and DMF2 annihilation. Lightning initiation problem can be solved by X-rays and gamma-rays, which slam into the thunderclouds and carve a conductive path through a thunderstorm. From this point of view, it is easy to explain all experimental results summarized above.
Short History of Ball Lightning Hypothesis. Ball lightning (BL) is an unexplained atmospheric phenomenon that is usually associated with thunderstorms and lasts considerably longer than the split-second flash of a lightning bolt. BL usually appears during thunderstorms, sometimes within a few seconds of lightning, but sometimes without apparent connection to a lightning bolt. Different hypothesis were proposed to explain BL, but no one explanation is widely accepted at present:  Vacuum hypothesis by Nikola Tesla [138] [146].
According to A. G. Oreshko, "P. L. Kapitsa supposed that a ball lightning is a window in another world" [147]. In WUM, it was suggested that BL is an object of the Small-World [12].
Observation of the Optical and Spectral Characteristics of BL was conducted by Jianyong Cen, et al. in 2012 [148]. At a distance of 900 m a total of 1.64 seconds of digital video of the BL and its spectrum was obtained, from the formation of the BL after the ordinary lightning struck the ground, up to the optical decay of the phenomenon. The BL traveled horizontally across the video frame at an average speed of 8.6 m/s. It had a diameter of 5 m.
Ball Lightning Formation. The clue of our model comes from the observed ability of BLs to penetrate solid materials. It means that the core of BL should be composed of DMPs. In WUM, they are DMF1 and DMF2. Small Objects made Journal of High Energy Physics, Gravitation and Cosmology up of self-annihilating particles DMF1 or DMF2 can form cores of BLs in Small-Worlds characterized by super-weak interaction (see Section 6.6).
Following Tesla vacuum hypothesis [138] [139], we suppose that when sudden and very powerful TGF passes through the air and strike the surface of the Earth, "the tremendous expansion of some portions of the air and subsequent rapid cooling and condensation gives rise to the creation of partial vacua in the places of greatest development of heat. These vacuous spaces, owing to the properties of the gas, are most likely to assume the shape of hollow spheres when, upon cooling, the air from all around rushes in to fill the cavity created by the explosive dilatation and subsequent contraction".
In our Model, the places of greatest development of heat are the spots on the Earth's surface struck by TGFs. As the result, the ablation of the soil takes place and vaporized chemical elements of soil and air can be absorbed by BLs and observed experimentally [148].
Very powerful gamma quants with energy of at least 1.02 MeV in the vicinity of atomic nuclei of the ground can produce electron-positron pairs with high concentration. This electron-positron plasma composes a shell around DM core of BL made up of DMF1 or DMF2 and provides their affinity for metal objects such as wires [148].
The most important part of the BL formation is a DM core. The calculated density of the Geocorona composed of DMF1  mass about ~10 −6 kg that will start attracting electron-positron pairs produced by TGF [12].
According to WUM, mass of BL's core can grow up to 2.3 kg, and the radius of plasma shell can reach a few meters [12]. Mass of a small BL is mostly concentrated in its DM core. A small BL can thus easily penetrate through walls, glass and metal, generally without leaving a hole. Practically all mass of large BLs is in the plasma. The BL with diameter 5 m observed by J. Cen, et al. [148] had the mass of about 83 kg [12].  It is important to emphasize that the initial energy required for a BL creation is insufficient for its sustenance of up to 1200 seconds. Additional energy, therefore, must be consumed by a BL once it had been formed. Once we master the creation of BLs in a controlled environment, we can concentrate our efforts on harvesting that energy. World-Universe Model can serve as a basis for High-Energy Atmospheric Physics.

Conclusions
Dark Matter is abundant:  2.4% of Luminous Matter is in Superclusters, Galaxies, Stars, Planets, etc.