The Spin Torus Energy Model and Electricity

Defining the electron to be a toroidal form of concentrated energy rather than a monopole point-charge, such as used for the Orbital Nuclear Atomic Model (ONAM), leads to a subtly different explanation for electricity and the dynamic nature of electromagnetic fields. The Spin Torus Energy Model (STEM) is used to define the electron and positron, which are then used to explain the nature of electric and magnetic fields, electric current generation from battery and induction sources, capacitor charge and discharge, and superconductivity. STEM supports the notion that free positrons exist within matter, and are equal in importance to electrons: as ONAM makes no provision for positrons within matter, this assertion has wide ranging implications for atomic structure models and chemistry.


Introduction
The Orbital Nuclear Atomic Model (ONAM) defines the electron as a point-form monopole electric charge for mathematical modelling purposes, with the electron commonly represented as a spinning sphere simply labelled "e − ".
A well-documented alternative model to monopole point-charge is the Toroidal Solenoidal Electron (TSE) [1] [2] [3] which defines the electron as a spinning point electric charge that moves at high speeds in a solenoidal pattern around a torus-shaped pathway: examples of variations of the TSE model [1] [4]- [9] are shown in Figure 1. The mathematics developed for the TSE [7] [8] [9] [10] model is claimed to provide a better fit for the electromagnetic characte- flowing or spinning at close to the speed of light as a fluid-like continuum in the circular pathway of a torus. STEM is a hybrid model that is distinctly different to both the monopole point-charge and the TSE models, but shares aspects of both.
A basic STEM particle is the bitron, which can be induced to transform into either an electron or a positron by an appropriate electromagnetic field.
The spin of a bitron's concentrated core energy generates an apparent centrifugal force 1 around its outer equatorial perimeter, and because the ductile strength of the core has been exceeded, a stream of energy weeps from the equatorial perimeter. The escaped energy is much less concentrated than core energy and forms a relatively stable disk-like shim around and spinning in synch with the core energy of the bitron. A bitron with a stable disc-like outer energy field as shown in Figure 2(a) is referred to as a neutral bitron.
The energy field of a neutral bitron is not dissimilar to accretion disks ( Figure 2(b)) observed around massive centralised astrological objects. Accretion disks are considered to be caused by MRI (Magneto-Rotational Instability, as variously called Balbus-Hawley or Velikhov-Chandrasekhar instability). Although one phenomenon is sub-microscopic and the other is macroscopic, the cause of both would appear to be MRI related.
Neutral bitrons do not have chirality 2 and, although they have the same contained energy levels of electrons and positrons, they are neither an electron nor a positron. However, an externally applied electromagnetic field can change the dynamics of a neutral bitron's energy field instantaneously, providing it with chirality and transforming it into either an electron or a positron. The bitron is then considered to be polarised. 1 Figure 2. Neutral bitron.
An applied electromagnetic field pushes an amenable neutral bitron's outer energy field towards one of its two axial extremities where it folds back towards the central hole of the energy core torus. As the energy field approaches the central hole of the energy core, its circular spin radius is reduced causing it to accelerate and to form a convergent inward-flow vortex [11]. Although some of the energy field's energy may be absorbed by the core energy, most of the returning energy passes through the torus's central hole to spiral outwards on the other side as a swirling energy field, expanding to form a divergent outward-flow vortex. The field energy then folds back to join the energy field streaming from the torus circumference, forming a re-circulating atmosphere of low concentration energy circulating around the energy core as shown in Figure 3(b).
The pattern of a polarised bitron's the energy field is superficially similar to that of a magnetic field, with the convergent vortex resembling a magnetic South pole and the divergent vortex a magnetic North pole: however it is different to a magnetic field because it has a circular flow component that a magnetic field does not have.
Chirality is a subtle property that warrants further discussion. When looking at a bitron from one side, should its core energy appear to flow in a clockwise direction, then by rotating it by 180˚ perpendicular to its spin axis, or by simply looking at it from the other direction, it will appear to flow in an anti-clockwise direction (see Figure 3(a)). That is not chirality. However when circular flow is combined with a linear flow direction we have chirality: a perfect chiral analogy is the incompatibility between a left-thread and a right-thread screw.
As a polarised bitron's energy field has both a linear (i.e. axial) and a circular flow component, it is chiral and the chiral form of the energy field that determines whether it has become an electron or a positron.
A convention is required to identify the chiral form of a polarised bitron's energy field. In order to minimise confusion with common-use electromagnetic field terminology such as North/South, Positive/Negative and left/right nomenclature has been avoided. Instead a clockwise/anti-clockwise and in/out-flow terminology has been adopted, abbreviated by use of a dual-letter notation. Open Journal of Applied Sciences The first letter of the notation identifies circular spin direction of the energy core/field: a "C" for Clockwise when looking along the spin axis towards the bitron, and an "A" for Anti-clockwise. The 2nd letter is for the central axial in/out-flow direction of the energy field: an "I" to represent In-flow of the convergent vortex, and an "O" for Out-flow of the divergent vortex away from the torus hole.
Note that the linear flow direction close to the spin axis within the flow vortices is in the opposite direction to flow direction around the outside of the energy core: thus the "I" and "O" notations refer only to the flow direction close to the spin axis within the divergent and convergent vortex areas. Also, when used, the circular flow component is notated as "e" (left in Figure 3(a)) and linear component "b" refer to the outer zone (external) energy field flow components.
Using this simple dual-letter notation, the convention adopted is that an D. Johnson Open Journal of Applied Sciences electron is defined and identifiable by an AO and CI combination, and a positron by a CO and AI combination. Due to chirality, only one end of the energy field needs to be established using the dual-letter notation to distinguish between an electron and a positron.
An important aspect of the STEM electron is that it can be easily converted into a positron by simply reversing or flipping the axial flow direction of its energy field. Energy field flipping also works in reverse, converting a positon into an electron, and does so without having to change the orientation of the torus energy core. Field flipping allows STEM to readily explain AC electricity and Beta decay, which for the latter involves the transformation of protons to neutrons and vice versa [12]. Now that a definition and notation for an electron and positron have been established in terms of energy core and field flows, the nature of electric currents, electric and magnetic fields and electromagnetic attraction and repulsion can be explored and explained in energy specific terms.

Electric Currents
Within an electrical conductor the energy fields of free neutral bitrons cause them to become axially aligned with approximately equal numbers facing one way (clockwise say) and the other half the other (anti-clockwise say). The axially An electric current can be generated within a conductor (e.g. a copper wire conductor) by electromagnetic induction or by a source/sink mechanism. We shall now concentrate upon the source/sink generation of an electric current, with electromagnetic induction being addressed in Chapter 4.
The source/sink mechanism involves the creation of electron and positron concentrations which represent supply sources and cause migration of electrons and positrons to lower concentration sinks. Electron and positron concentrations can be created by a variety of processes: chemical reactions (e.g. batteries), thermo-electric processes, the photoelectric effect, static electricity, surface effects (plasmons [13]) and capacitor charge and discharge. In this paper we shall just be considering the effect of such concentrations rather than their cause.
A simple electric circuit can be considered to consist of an electron source (the negative terminal) connected to a positron source (the positive terminal) by an electrical conductor (e.g. copper wire). Within such a circuit electrons and positrons move with their out-flow poles (AO and CO respectively) facing the direction of travel: the reason for this will soon become apparent. As electrons enter the electron supply end of a conductor (the large red minus sign in Figure 4), they form or join electron-strands (or e-strands) with their AO poles directed towards the positive terminal end. The newly energized e-strands at the negative terminal end induce the energy fields of adjacent neutral bitron strands that have the same circular spin direction as themselves to polarise. This process turns into a chain reaction as induced e-strands induce their neighbouring compatible neutral strands to polarise. As the supply of more electrons continues the e-strands continue to build and to increase in number, strength and packing density.
Simultaneously, on the positive terminal supply side of the circuit, positrons are added with their CO end facing the negative terminal, so creating and strengthening positron-strands (or p-strands). The net result is that the circuit becomes energised by e-and p-strands that all have the same spin direction (as can be clearly seen in Figure 4) and orientated with their energy field out-flows pointing in opposite directions. Within their respective strands electrons and positrons can be considered to represent small electric dipoles with implicit positive (CO and CI) and implicit negative (AO and CI) poles, as shown the strand representation at the top of Figure 4, which helps keep them together within their strands as they move.
Only half the available neutral strands in the conductor are polarised: the oth-  In the way of a summary, STEM contends that, rather than being the one-way movement of electrons, electricity is the two-way movement of polarised e-and p-strands which, with the help of the neutral strands of opposite spin direction, push themselves in opposite directions to each other, leading with their AO and CO poles respectively. It is a simple, logical model that fits all the known facts related to electricity without the need to invoke fictitious positive hole and electric dipole constructs.
A subtle difference between the STEM and the TSE models is that STEM core energy flow is purely circular spin and is thus non-chiral, whereas the solenoidal nature of the TSE core energy makes the core itself chiral as reflected in the chirality of the associated energy field: it has no neutral mode. A result of this subtle, but important difference, is that the TSE model requires that all electrons and positrons to be flipped (i.e. be rotated by 180˚) in order to change current direction, which is considered to be untenable.

Electric Circuits and Electric Fields
For this discussion an electric circuit is considered to comprise of a power source and various electrical components connected by a copper wire conductor that supports the two way movement of polarised e-and p-strands. In order to more fully explore and explain the behaviour of bitron strands in relationship to an electric circuit, the following three states of a basic electric DC circuit will be considered:

1) No power source;
2) Open circuit with power source connected; and 3) Power source in place but with a break of circuit (switched off mode).

1) No power source
This option relates to a length of copper wire that is not connected to any cir-

Electromagnetic Induction
Faraday's Law of electro-magnetic induction states that whenever a conductor is forcefully moved in an electromagnetic field, an emf is induced which causes a current to flow. For STEM, the current flow represents the synchronous movement in opposite directions of aligned e-and p-strands within the conductor.
In Figure 6, a rod conductor (PQ) forms closure to a "U" shaped electric circuit subjected to a uniform external magnetic field (B). When the rod moves (at speed v) towards the base of the "U" as in Figure 6(a) (thus creating a smaller loop area) a clockwise electric current (I) is generated, nominally from a positive Q to a negative P. When the rod moves in the other direction, away from the base of the "U" as in Figure 6(b) (thus creating a larger loop area), an anti-clockwise electric current (I) is generated, which by convention is nominally from a positive P to a negative Q.
As stated earlier, within a neutral wire conductor not connected to any power source, its bitron strands are variously bent by the electromagnetic fields within the wire's atomic lattice, but in spite of various twists and turns, the strands remain largely intact. Thus the orientation of bitrons within neutral strands can vary from being axially aligned to the rod (B and E in Figure 6) to being perpendicular to the rod wall (not shown), with an average orientation 45˚ to each (shown as the bitrons A, C, D and F in Figure 6).
The magnetic field direction downwards into the page is shown is shown as arrow-quill symbol (representing the disappearing cross-quills of an arrow fired through the page): the small attached red arrow represents the relative movement of the magnetic field due to the rod moving towards it.
A neutral bitron is represented by the icon where the arrow-quill symbol indicates the bitron's spin direction (here into the page on the right-hand side to represent clockwise spin as viewed from the bottom of the page).
The diagram below shows vertical cross-sections of the bar PQ. When moved right through the magnetic field it distorts the field, shown as the bent lines of force. The magnetic field applies a force in the opposite direction in response to being pushed aside, as shown by the hollow red arrow in Figure 6. When the rod moves to the left a reaction force similarly pushes right. When the bar is stationary, the lines of force tend to wrap around the rod so that any reaction forces on either side counteract each other.
First, considering Figure 6(b) that represents the situation when the rod is moved to the right. For a bitron with orientation D, its leading edge of its energy field has the same direction is in the same direction (downwards) as the approaching magnetic flux field, and thus it gains in spin speed (increased angular momentum). In its more energized state, the reaction force pushes its energy field in the direction of the hollow red arrow to form the AO-CI pattern of an electron. Using similar reasoning, bitrons orientated similarly to bitron F in However, it requires energy to keep the e-and p-strands polarised and moving, and the poorer the conductivity of the wire conductor the larger are the energy loss. Unless you have super conductor circuitry, an ongoing energy supply is required to keep the current flowing, As soon as the magnetic field is removed or the movement through the magnetic field is stopped, so is the electric current, and the polarised strands revert back into neutral strands.
Thus, for the bar moving outwards situation, the e-strands start to work their way towards the P end of the rod, leading with their AO end forward, so creating an implicit positive terminal at the P end of the rod. Similarly an implicit negative terminal is created at the Q end of the rod is created by the movement of p-strands leading with their CO end. Although the mechanics of induced current generation is different to the source-sink process, both processes result in one half of the bitron strands (here those corresponding to D, E and F) forming an electric current and the other half remaining neutral (here A, B and C), which in itself is quite remarkable.
When the bar moves to the left (Figure 6

Electrostatic Charges
An electrostatic charge, often called static electricity, is a surface collection of electrically charged particles that is typically generated by the rubbing together of certain materials. The ONAM explanation for static electricity is that triboelectric materials have a tendency to give up electrons so as to become positive (+) in charge, or to attract electrons to become negative (−) in charge. The STEM explanation is that static electricity is due to friction-induced polarisation of neutral and weakly polarised bitron strands, with the structure of triboelectric materials pre-disposing them to develop more p-strands or more e-strands, and "neutral" materials developing approximately equal numbers of each which are less energised and thus become only weakly polarised.
The Triboelectric Series is simply a list of which materials have a tendency to become positively charged, such as air, leather, rabbit fur, glass, human hair, nylon, wool, lead, cat fur, silk, aluminum, paper; and those with a tendency to become negative, such as ebonite, silicone, rubber, teflon, silicon, polypropylene vinyl  There are several important features of static electricity that need to be noted: 1) The rubbing process results in strands that are fragmented but highly energised and polarised. A cross-section of the hollow both hollow metal spheres (Figure 10(b) and Figure 10(c)) have similar electrical cross-sectional profiles. As mentioned in point 3 above, the polarised strands push against neutral strands that have opposite spin so as to concentrate at the outer surface of the material with their AO electron or CO positron poles facing outwards. As surface concentrations build, they spread sideways to become evenly distributed around the outer surface of their sphere. The neutral strands, being pushed away from the outer surface by the polarised strands, migrate towards the inner surface of the domes, so rendering the inner surface of the dome electrically neutral.
The electric charge build-up on the surface of the spheres continues until all the strands with the appropriate spin orientation (half of all the strands) on the dome side of the belt are polarised and energised to the maximum extent possible from the charge field emanating from the rollers. Huge cumulative static electricity charges are achievable on the outer surface of the domes because the polarised strands have pushed and squeezed all neutral strands from the outer surface area.
When fully charged, the outer surfaces are packed entirely with outfacing polarised strands and their associated electric fields. When the positively and negatively charged domes are brought close together, the large electric potential difference between the positively and negatively charged spheres ionises air and water molecules between the two, creating low-level plasma, that quickly escalates into a large-scale charge transfer as an electric arc (item 9 in Figure 10), as

Chemical DC Electricity Generation and Recharge
The Galvanic Cell example Figure 11

Electromagnetic Attraction and Repulsion: An Explanation
Magnetic and electric fields consist of the same type of energy and have many similarities; but their different flow patterns mean that they are subtly different.
Magnetic fields emanate from magnets or are generated by an electric current moving around a loop or coil as shown in the figure below. Unlike electric fields, magnetic fields do not involve energy field spin.
In 3D both forms of energy field generate a broad looped torus-like pattern around their respective poles (e.g. the lines of force around a dipole magnet and the energy field around a polarised bitron). Magnetic fields flow out from a North pole to return back via a South pole; electric fields have a divergent out-flow and a convergent in-flow poles. For both types of energy field their like-poles repel and opposite-poles attract. In this section we will take a closer look at the nature of these fields in order to provide an explanation of their attraction and repulsion characteristics.
The flow of electromagnetic energy within a magnetic field is from its North pole to its South pole: the energy flow has no circular component apart from its large arc trajectory around the magnet or current loop that generates it. Opposite pole attraction occurs because the magnetic out-flow (North) and in-flow (South) field lines energy join as shown in Figure 12(a) and Figure 12   The circular spin of the neutral bitrons' energy fields helps to jostle bitrons into like-spin compatible strand-like groupings. Within a strand-like grouping, low concentrations of energy accumulate between the bitrons as in Figure 13(a) and Figure 13(b). Each bitron is then competing for the available energy, drawing it towards the central hole of their core energy: it is the mutual competition for this energy that causes them to be pulled towards the resource-in-common (the blue arrows), so creating equal spacing between them.
When equally spaced aligned strand-like groups of bitrons are polarised the inner field energy flows from one bitron to the next, with an outer-return flow in the opposite direction as for the electrons in Figure 13 An electric field is the combined outwardly directed fields of e-and p-strands.
E-strands generate outwardly directed fields called e-wisp fields (or simply e-wisps) with an AO heading away from the negative pole associated with the negative side of an electric power source. P-strands similarly generate p-wisps with a CO heading from the positive side of an electric power source.
As well as AO e-wisps, a negative electric pole also generates AI p-wisps which are the tail-end of contained p-strands, which when connected to a CO headed p-wisp field from the positive pole form a p-thread field which transfers energy centrally from the positive to the negative pole (shown as the blue p-thread arrows of Figure 14). Similar connections form AO-to-CI e-threads which transfer energy from the negative to positive pole.   which represent only the p-wisps and p-strands, which is only half the story. Figure 5(a) is a simpler version of the STEM approach that is visually closer to the conventional lines of force diagram. Repulsion between like electric poles is due to wisps with the same heading clashing head-on, deflecting and pushing each other away: they also cancel out each other's circular field component. The result is repulsion and the associated lines of force that are the same as for like magnetic pole repulsion; but electric attraction, as explained above, is distinctly different to magnetic attraction.

Capacitor Charge and Discharge
The dielectric material, as used in an electric capacitor, is an electric insulator that provides significantly more resistance to bitron movement than an electrical conductor. Also a dielectric contains smaller quantities of free bitrons than an electrical conductor. Although dielectric bitrons are sparse and bitron strands less densely packed and possibly more contorted, they can be polarised and become quite highly energised, and keep the acquired energy long after the charging energy source is turned off. Energy so stored can then be released as an electric current when the circuit is in discharge mode.
During the charge phase (Figure 15  Interestingly, the Wikipedia definition for a dielectric is "an electrical insulator that can be polarised by an applied electric field", and the explanatory diagram provided for "dielectric polarisation" (duplicated as Figure 15

Superconductivity
So far this paper has suggested that the electron and positron strands are continuous from source to sink, but this is far from the case. In temperatures above about 170 K, even the best of electrical conductors (e.g. Au) are far from perfect conductors: structural flaws (crystal interfaces and micro-fractures associated with the manufacturing process) and contaminants ensure that is the case.
Structural flaws and contaminants provide barriers that can break strands into smaller strands. Broken strands can usually re-connect with other strands to build into longer strands, but the process of bending, breaking and (re)joining strands creates energy loss in the form of heat and light. The electromagnetic fields of atoms of the carrier also push and pull on the strands, impeding their movement. It is the amount of difficulty encountered by strands moving towards their respective sinks that determines a carrier's resistance (Ω).
Usually when a metal conductor is cooled there is an increase in conductivity.

Free Electron and Positron Farming
Electrons are most commonly sourced from thermionic cathode ray tubes (e.g. On a smaller scale, a positron beam was generated 2013 [13] using a laser-driven particle acceleration setup (see Figure 16). A petawatt (1015 W) laser was fired at a sample of inert helium gas, creating a stream of electrons moving at very high speed, which were directed at a very thin sheet of metal foil: the resulting collisions produced a stream of electron and positron (and gamma ray) emissions which could be separated using magnets. This has led to cheaper, more practical setup options for researchers.

Atomic Structure, Chemical Reactions, EMR and Gravity
STEM is not restricted to the definition of electrons, positrons, electromagnetic fields and electricity. It can be extended to define a structure Preons, quarks [14] and nucleons and to explore the nuclear structure of atoms (see [12]), and to provide explanations for the physical characteristics and different allotropic forms of elements in the Periodic Table; their various bonding geometries; and for electron capture and beta decay.
STEM can also provide feasible explanations for the particle-wave nature of EMR, spectral line emission and absorption, the photo-electric effect, the Compton effect, electron pair generation and annihilation, and Gravity (see [15]).

Summary and Conclusions
Good electrical conductors contain abundant neutral bitrons, orientated so that half spin clockwise and the other half anti-clockwise, with like-spin bitrons self-organising into linear groups called strands. STEM contends that electricity is the two-way movement of strands polarised with the same circular spin direction but different chirality: it thus involves only half of the bitron strands. Of these, half are electron strands (e-strands) and the other half are positron strands (p-strands).
The helicity of the polarised strands' outer energy fields causes them to push against the neutral strands and so move; but due to their opposite chirality, they move in opposite directions as positrons and electrons. Such movement results in an electric current with e-strands moving towards the positive terminal (physical or implied), leading with their AO poles, and p-strands towards the negative terminal, leading with their CO poles. Because the polarised strands all have the same spin direction, their outer energy fields combine to produce an induced circular magnetic field around the wire conductor through which they move.
An electric field, such as generated by attaching a probe to the appropriate terminal of an electric power source, is formed by the combined energy fields of polarised bitron strands that extend beyond the outer surface of the probes. The lines of force associated with electric fields are extensions of polarised bitron strands, and thus have a circular spin component which distinguishes them from the lines of flux associated with a magnetic field, which have no spin component. Both electric and magnetic fields consist of exactly the same type of energy but they have different flow patterns.
Apart from having different chirality, electrons and positrons have the same structure and electromagnetic characteristics. Extracted (or farmed) positrons are easily identified and separated from electrons using a magnetic field, but when within a solid host material, they are most difficult to distinguish from electrons. Although low levels of positrons are a bi-product of pair production and Beta radiation, because positrons require considerably more energy to allow them to escape a host medium than do electrons, elaborate high energy accelerators are required to extract useful quantities of free positrons. Such technolo-Open Journal of Applied Sciences gies (e.g. the desk-top positron generator [16]) have only become available over the past 10 years or so, and thus it is easy to see how, historically, the presence of positrons in material (such as electrical conductors) has been missed.
The Orbital Nuclear Atomic Model (ONAM), which is based upon a point-form monopole electric charge definition of the electron, does not and probably cannot support the concept of positrons within matter; and herein lies a major problem for Science. The ONAM approach considers that positive electric poles reflect a lack of orbital electrons and negative poles an excess of orbital electrons. It describes electric currents as the one-way movement of electrons from a negative pole to a positive pole (although there is uncertainty as to whether electric currents flow from positive to negative), and then relies on fictional positive holes, which are functionally the same as positrons, to explain semiconductor generated electric currents and fictional dipoles to explain capacitor charge and discharge.
STEM provides logical, consistent explanations regarding the nature of and interdependency between electric and magnetic fields; electrons; positrons; electric current flow; capacitor charge and discharge; the induction of electric current; and superconductivity. It represents a new and different approach that has the potential to cause a major re-think about electricity: it is certainly radically different from the ONAM-based interpretation involving the one-way movement of negatively charged monopole electrons.
The future ramifications of STEM for Science, industry and education are significant, and extend far beyond electricity. The presence of both free electrons and positrons within matter opens a large can of worms requiring a re-think about atomic structure [12], ionic bonding, chemical reactions, EMR [15], and Gravity. They are all connected, and electricity is just the start.