Study of the Possibility of Predicting Earthquakes

It is already well known that the “when, where and how strong” earthquake prediction problem cannot be solved by only analyzing the database from former earthquakes. A possible solution to this problem is proposed herein based on the analysis of the physicochemical processes as participants in earthquake preparation and on the characteristic rate of reflection of these processes on the Earth’s surface. The proposed procedure includes monitoring of correlation of electromagnetic fields variations with tidal waves. This solution provides a way of selecting a complex of reliable earthquake precursors using the Inverse Problem Method for earthquakes which will occur in the region around the monitoring point (radial distance ≈ 700 km) in the next seven-day period [1].


Introduction
In this article, tectonic earthquake and eruption processes are presented and discussed as a series of chemical explosions caused by physicochemical processes, which are partly reflected on Earth's surface.Energy accumulation in the hypocenter includes the latent energy of chemically active (explosive) substances cause such motion and energy release in principle [7].The energy release and the dominant vertical component of Earth's surface motion [6] [8] [9] support the claim that explosion is a basic mechanism of tectonic earthquakes.
Flow of H and He from the core and the lower mantle where pressure-temperature (PT) exceeds 1,000,000 atm.and 5000 K is undeniably a major energy source [3] [4].This energy is: 1) Quasi-constantly released during billions of years of the Earth's existence and practically limitless; 2) Can be quickly concentrated and focused; 3) Is of very high density; 4) Offers very high velocities of energy release; 5) Has small losses during transportation over long distances.
Authors have proposed [3] [4] a conceptual system of hypotheses, which explains that during Earth's accretion, primordial helium and hydrogen were trapped and stored in the planet's interior as He-and H-interstitial solutions and compounds, stable only under ultrahigh PT-conditions, which were discovered in recent experiments.The endothermic reactions of their generation provided effective cooling of the planet and prevented its evaporation, where the end-products of those reactions were more compact than the initial gases.Since the stabilization of our planet, exothermic processes of H and He degassing became dominant, releasing the energy invested in their generation.The specific energy of the core-mantle H and He was calculated with 3 He serving as a unique measuring transformer correlative to the internal heat flow.Multiplying its flow from the lower mantle by the highest coefficient of correlation results in 5.12 × 10 20 J/year, an amount of energy five-fold greater than the entire energy loss involved in earthquake and volcanic activity [3] [4].
In distinction to other main sources of the Earth's internal energy (cold fusion and fission nuclear reactions, radioactive decomposition of U, Th and 40  with Principle Le Chatelier-Braun ("The Equilibrium Law": "whenever a system in equilibrium is disturbed the system will adjust itself in such a way that the effect of the change will be nullified").

Physics and Chemistry of the Hypocenter Preparation and Earthquake Prediction
The earthquake preparation includes a number of processes having different rates.Only the electromagnetic waves approach Earth's surface immediately.
This difference in the rates allows us to use them as a reliable earthquake precursor.A possible solution of this problem is proposed herein based on the analysis of the physicochemical processes as participants in earthquake preparation and on the characteristic rate of reflection of these processes on the Earth's surface.This solution provides a way of selecting a complex of reliable earthquake precursors using the Inverse Problem Method for earthquakes which will occur in the region around the monitoring point (radial distance ≈ 700 km) in the next seven day period.
N.N.Semenov declared already in 1956 in his Nobel Prize lecture titled "Some problems relating to chain reactions and to the theory of combustion" that the trains of chemical explosions are chemical branched chain-reactions [10].This declaration is supported by a comparison of seismograms from earthquakes and nuclear explosions where the complexity of natural events (earthquakes) is higher than that of artificial events (explosions).Micro-or macro-foreshocks are forerunners of the major shock.Natural earthquakes are more complex than nuclear explosions and at teleseismic distances the difference between them is clear.This difference is observed very clearly in the relationship of solids to surface-wave amplitudes [11].The nuclear weapons test is just a point explosion, whereas earthquake is the superposition of the totality of explosions which are distributed in space and time.
Prerequisites for the chemical explosions are the critical concentrations of reactants and their ratio which depends on PT conditions [10] [14].
The possibility of explosion propagation (or detonation) to other clusters depends on the distance between clusters or on the cluster volume concentration.
The critical or more than critical concentration of ready to detonate volume of explosive substances clusters is the second condition of earthquake.Too large a distance between clusters limits the propagation of detonation possibility due to the possibility of absorption of the local explosion's energy by surrounding matter.This absorption causes local heating of matter and the formation of the chemically active substances [15].
Relatively small concentrations of explosive clusters before an earthquake produce foreshocks, which is preparation for an earthquake's major shock.
"Combustion" of most of the clusters during the earthquake process decreases their concentration and generates aftershocks, (which take part in the rising hypocenter) and cause the relaxation of the surrounding matter.
Formation and accumulation of the explosive substances cluster, and preparation of the earthquake, is a totality of process.A hypocenter is an open thermodynamic system which uses all the possible degrees of freedom.This system is non-linear due to a principally different rate of separate processes including diffusion and filtration of molten matter through porous rock and cracks, heating and cooling, and stress and strain flow.An earthquake may be described as a bifurcation which returns part of the mantle-lithospere system to their main trajectory of development and corresponds to minimal internal free energy of the system and maximal rate of entropy production in the macrosystem.The following possible reactants participate in an earthquake explosion: hydrogenoxygen; hydrogen -halogens; hydrogen -sulfur; alkanes (methane, etc.) -oxygen; alkanes -halogens; alkanes -nitrates, etc.
Explosive substances are produced and accumulated due to the energy which is released in the Earth's core, mantle, and lithosphere, by five main sources: 1) Cold nuclear synthesis (fusion reactions), which are accompanied by a generation and release of energy, 3 He, 4 He, 3 H and Earth neutrinos [16]- [23].
2) The natural fission nuclear reactors with fast neutrons on the boundary of Earth's solid/liquid core, and possibly, liquid core/mantle [24] [25] [26].The capacity of those reactors depends on the Sun-Axions flow-intensity [27].
3) Tidal waves cause dissipation of energy in the Earth's core, mantle, and lithosphere; tidal waves are the main source of energy on the Jupiter and Saturn moons [28].
4) Gravitational differentiation promotes the solid core formation and plume activity [29].

5) Earth's degassing of hydrogen and helium [3] [4] [29] [30] [31], which
generates anomalies of these gases in vicinities of active faults and forms a halo of hydrogen and helium surrounding our planet and comprising its exosphere.
Results of the analyses of the earthquake and volcanic eruption related gases clearly show that the mechanism of quake and eruption is a release of chemical Movement of the matter creates triboelectricity [37] due to friction between boundaries of the mantle-fragments and of gas-liquid plume and mantle, and also promotes electrokinetic phenomena (electrophoresis and electroosmosis).

Sun-Moon Tides as Earthquake Triggers
Tidal waves cause dissipation of energy in the mantle and lithosphere [28] [38] [39] [40] and periodic stress-strain waves create a peristaltic effect and increase the rate of rising of plume matter.Tidal waves have a very high velocity (more than 460 m/s in the lithosphere and more than 240 m/s on the liquid core boundary in the equatorial zone).This velocity is higher than the critical rate of propagation of brittle cracks.A high rate of loading promotes brittle behavior of the semi-solid viscose mantle and generates cracks.Cracks and cavities are filled by melt, steam, gas, suspension, etc. Coexistence of the liquid and solid phase provides "adiabatic" heat transport with maximal efficacy: where: K is thermal conductivity; n V is number of particles per unit volume, which is close for liquid and solid phase near melting point; λ is mean con- centration of free particles (electrons, for example); C V is molar heat capacity; N A is Avogadro's number.
It is well known, that the specific heat capacity during phase transition is two orders of magnitude higher than for the mixed liquid and solid phase [41] [42] [43] [44] due to latent heat of the heat transition.It means that solid-liquid state is thermodynamically preferable for the mantle matter and for the earthquake-hypocenter heat-transport.Multiphase structure is preferable also for the matter-transport due to significantly higher flexibility and super-elasticity during phase transition [43] [44].
Thermal-current loops at the phase boundaries can enhance the local magnetic field created by the matter flows and by physicochemical processes.
where: B is magnetic field intensity (a vector); dl n is differential element of the current in the direction of the corresponding current (vector); r is distance from the current to the point of magnetic field measurement; ˆn r is the unit vector from the current element to the point of magnetic field measurement.
Tidal waves are a natural trigger of the totality of physicochemical processes, which comprise earthquake-preparation [45] [46] [47].Most of these processes are accompanied by electromagnetic phenomena.The rate of the magnetic field propagation is 300,000 km/sec.This means that the geomagnetic signal approaches the Earth's surface without any delay.However, the time taken for the relaxation processes, for creating electrical currents, and for changing the local geomagnetic field is much longer than that of the magnetic field propagation.
The rate of detonation at atmospheric pressure varies from 3 to 11 km/s (more than the velocity of sound) and the rate of the longitudinal and transverse waves in the solid mantle changes from 8 to 13.5 km/s for P-waves and from 4.5 to 7 km/s for S-waves.The time propagation of shock wave from hypocenter to epicenter is a function of depth and may vary between 1 to 90 seconds.The rate of all other processes may be much smaller.For example, the rate of plume matter movement, diffusion, or filtration through fractured or porous rock may be very low also.
So, processes of earthquake-hypocenter preparation comprise a multi-parametric non-linear system, which compensates differences in times of response or relaxation of different processes by bifurcation.
The monitoring system has to use parameters with a characteristic time of response equal or shorter than the duration of hypocenter matter relaxation.
Moreover, the time it takes for the measurement of these parameters has to be shorter than the time of earthquake preparation.Time and rate of the processes involved are variable and may accelerate toward earthquake or bifurcation.It means that relatively short-time reliable predictions may be based only on monitoring the changes of the electromagnetic fields and viscous-elastic waves as a response to tides only.
For the longer time prognosis, other reliable precursors have to be included (see below).These measurements were made with an interval of one minute and the obtained data allowed suggesting the following variables: the geomagnetic quake (GQ) of the field in the vicinity of a tidal wave maximum, the average daily magnitude of the magnetic field strength, and its hourly and minute average deviation [1].This was the first statistical evidence that after a geomagnetic quake there is an increase of the seismic activity around a monitoring point estimated by the number of earthquakes with different magnitudes.
Further progress (2004-2010) was reached with the use of a three-component Danish fluxgate magnetometer, operated by the Skopje Seismological Observatory with the analysis of one minute INTERMAGNET data [48] [49] [50].Introduction of the diurnal sum of earthquake energy as a numerical estimation of regional seismic activity.
The distributions for variable Day Diff of 874532 world earthquakes with magnitude M = 3.5, 5, 6, 7 which occurred in the period of 1981-2017 (International Seismological Center: http://www.isc.ac.uk/iscgem/overview.php) support the old hypothesis that the Sun-Moon tides are the earthquakes trigger.DayDiff is as follows: where EqTime is the time of earthquake and NearTideExtreme is the time of nearest extreme of the diurnal mean of the Sun-Moon tide values and is presented in Figure 1.
As is seen from the graphs, 92% of all analyzed earthquakes occurred in the time period of +/− 2.23 days around the time of a tide extreme in the locality of their epicenter.
The value at Day Diff can be interpreted as a count of aftershocks.Table 2 illustrates the cases of magnitude (M), the values of sigma (half wide), total number of earthquakes, number of earthquakes outside of sigma intervals (+, −), and percent of earthquakes that occurred in the sigma interval.
It is important to note that the daily estimation of regional (around monitoring point) seismic activity can be achieved by summing up the variable reflecting where D = 40 km for the Balkan region, for every earthquake that occurred.Probably this value is determined by average lithosphere thickness in the Balkans.The explicit form of function Cht S was obtained using the Dubna inverse International Journal of Geosciences problem method [51]- [56] for estimation of the correlations between GmPrecSig and regional seismic activity in the tide's extreme period.
The inverse problem solution allowed selection of the following variables based on monitoring data: The estimation of the variability of one experimental series of measurements - includes the calculation of the mean value mT: and the value of its dimensionless standard deviation SdT: Obviously, the biggest standard deviation value means the biggest variability of the series.
Therefore, the procedure of monitoring includes numerical comparison of two sequential series of measurements.
The data used: • Earth tide extremes (daily average maximum, minimum and inflexed point) as a trigger of earthquakes, • Data for World A-indices (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Space Weather Prediction Center (NOAA SWPC) https://www.swpc.noaa.gov/products-and-data).The geomagnetic signal was calculated as a simple function of the relative standard deviations of the geomagnetic vector components.The precursor signal is the difference between today and yesterday's geomagnetic signal corrected by the Aindices values.An increase of the precursor signal means an increase of the geomagnetic field variability.Such a positive leap was named a geomagnetic quake in analogy with an earthquake.An analysis of the correlation between the earthquakes occurrences, and the time of Sun-Moon Earth tide extremes on the basis of the variable earthquake's surface energy density S ChtM permits the forecast of an imminent regional seismic activity.Calculation of the day differences (DayDiff) between the time of the earthquakes occurrence and the time of the nearest tide extreme permits the building of the curve of DayDiff and its Gaussian fit.The comparison of Gauss widths for all the earthquake occurrences and those with the biggest S ChtM permits the formulation of the hypothesis for "predictable" earthquakes.
The typical data and results of its analysis are shown in Figure 2 International Journal of Geosciences The indices of earthquake's magnitude value are the distance of one hundred km between the epicenter and the monitoring point.
The variable Periodic S Cht Sum [J/km 2 ] is the sum of the variables S Cht for all earthquakes that occurred in the time period +/− 2.7 days before and after the tide extreme in the 700 km region around the monitoring point.Obviously, its value can serve as an estimation of the regional seismic activities for the time period around the tide's extreme.
The variable Diurnal S ChtM Sum [J/km 2 per day] is the sum of the variable S Cht , calculated for all earthquakes that occurred during the day in the 700 km region around the monitoring point.This variable can serve as a quantitative measure of diurnal regional seismicity.
It is worth noting that the explicit form of the variable S Cht was established in the framework of the inverse problem [48]- [54] in an effort to get a clearer correlation between the variables PrecSig Day and PeriodicS Cht Sum.
The variable Tide Minute [cm] is the module of tide vector calculated every 15 minutes.
The variable Tide Day [cm] is the diurnal mean value in the time calculated in analogy of the mass center formulae Note: For the seconds and number of samples per second, the generalization has been to calculate geomagnetic field characteristics for every minute, and correspondingly the values of GmSig day have to be the average for 1440 minutes.
The positive value of the variable PrecursorSig day means that the geomagnetic field variability, which is calculated via standard deviations of geomagnetic field components, is increasing (formulae 1, 2).
In an analogy with an earthquake we call such an increase a geomagnetic quake.
As one can see from Figure 2, after the appearance of the geomagnetic quake, in nine of twelve cases (75%), the regional seismic activity is increasing (the bigger value of the Periodic S ChtM Sum variable) in the time period around the following tide extreme.Therefore, the geomagnetic quake approach described herein can serve as a forecast of imminent regional seismic activity.
In Figure 3   only for the time periods around the extremes, but also for the time period between them.We can see that the values in almost every extreme period are higher.
The use of the above described analysis for a longer time period with the calculation of distribution of day difference between the "predicted" earthquakes (earthquakes with the highest value S ChtM ) demonstrates the reliability of this approach for forecasting imminent regional seismic activity for regions with seismic risk (Figure 4).
The correspondence between GmPrecSig and the predicted increase of regional seismic activity permits the formulation of the hypothesis that the "predicted" earthquake is defined as the quake with the bigger value of function S Cht .
The GQ analysis of one minute INTERMAGNET data of Kakioka, Memambetsu and Kanoya, Japan stations demonstrated that such earthquakes are "predicted" in the same time from two stations, which permits the formulation of the overdetermined algebraic system for the explicit form of function GmPrecSig (M i , Dept i , Lat i , Long i ), i = 1, …, number of "predicted" earthquakes (12) Using (12), with the number of monitoring points, number of reliable precursors one can formulate the conditions for existence of overdetermined algebraic  system, solution of which are the values of M i , Dept i , Lat i , Long i ), i = 1, …,

Conclusions
The approach proposed for solving the problem of the "how, where and when" of earthquake prediction does not decrease the importance of commonly accepted investigations based on seismology, geology, geoelectromagnetism and JPS data.Presented herein is a new approach for forecasting of the regional weekly seismic and volcanic activity based on the analysis of the INTERMAGNET geomagnetic field and NASA code for Sun-Moon tides data and is a Geomagnetic Quake approach.The results are based on the inverse problem method for analysis of the geomagnetic field which instantaneously reflects terrestrial currents in hypocenter.The necessary and sufficient conditions for the existence of a solvable inverse problem are formulated on the basis of the existence of reliable precursors.

••
The beginning of this investigation dates back to the period of the Interna- tional Scientific Group work in the framework of the "Clean and Peaceful Black Sea" program (1986-1991)-Crimea 1927 earthquakes.In 1989 INRNE-BAS started an investigation of the physics of the sea flames, observed at the time of the Crimea 1927 earthquake with the help of the magnetometer, with a relative accuracy of less than or equal to 1 nT, 2.4 samples per second (Boris Vasiliev, JINR, Dubna, private communication).The second stage of the research was carried out within the framework of the program "1998-2004 INRNE-BAS monitoring" and consisted of monitoring the geomagnetic field-Boris Vasiliev, JINR, Dubna, with a one component magnetometer.

Figure 1 .
Figure 1.The Gauss fit of DayDiff distributions in case of different M.

Figure 2 .
Figure 2. Kakioka diurnal geomagnetic and earthquakes monitoring in the time period around the Fukushima earthquake with geomagnetic field data on March 11, 2011.
the values of the variable Periodic S ChtM Sum are calculated not S. C. Mavrodiev et al.DOI: 10.4236/ijg.2018.912042700 International Journal of Geosciences

Figure 4 .
Figure 4.The distribution and its Gauss fit of DayDiff for all earthquakes occurred in Memambetsu (700 km radial distance) region [56].

Table 1 .
Database of ground motion components in the neighborhoods of the epicenters.
[32]icochemical processes are the most effective way of transformation, transportation, and accumulation of energy into the hypocenter chamber.Total heat losses of the Earth are 46 ± 3 TW[32]including about 20 TW of the released radiogenic heat.According to neutrino flow measurements radi- S. C. Mavrodiev et al.DOI: 10.4236/ijg.2018.912042693 International Journal of Geosciences energy.boundaries and corresponding galvanic currents.Local heating increases local pressure and accelerates the movement of semi-melt or melt matter through porous rock and cracks creating the streaming potential, sedimentation potential, and corresponding currents.Temperature gradient of the heat flow causes electric gradient or electrode potentials on phase boundaries, which create electrophoresis and electroosmosis.Hydrogen, oxygen, sulfur, halogens, carbon, nitrogen, aluminum, and alkaline metals are possible participants in energy transport due to their chemical activity.The presence of helium increases flexibility and rate of stream of solids and melts [30] [33] [34].Moreover, hydrogen, lithium, and boron may take part in nuclear fusion reactions [16]-[21] [35] [36].

Table 2 .
Distribution of earthquakes relative to tides maximum.
The A indices are the Low, Medium and High indices, calculated by the NOAA, Space Weather Prediction Center: https://www.swpc.noaa.gov/products-and-dataInternationalJournal of GeosciencesIn this paper we use A Low .The variable GmSig hDay is the diurnal mean value of GmSig h :