Structure of the Universe

Based on a cosmological model without singularity, a possible structure of the universe is presented. It is proved that there must simultaneously be two sorts of symmetry breaking in the universe. The universe is composed of infinite s-cosmic islands, infinite v-cosmic islands and infinite transition zone. The existing and changing forms of the cosmic islands must be diverse. The cosmological principle holds only approximately within a cosmic island. No information can be exchanged between an s-cosmic island and an adjacent v-cosmic island so that every observer thinks his cosmic island to be the whole universe. It is possible that some cosmic islands are contracting, some cosmic islands are expanding, and other cosmic islands are stable for a time. But the universe as a whole is always invariable and contains all possible existing forms of matter. To give a possible explanation for orphan quasars. To predict some characteristics of contracting large and huge black holes in a cosmic island. The characteristics of the light coming from the contracting huge black holes are that the intensity of the light is huge relatively to their distance, the red shifts are huge, the distribution of the huge red shifts and the orphan quasars are anisotropic, and luminescence spectrum is very wide.


Introduction
The Ref. [1] has presented a cosmological model without singularity based on R-W metric. According to [1], there are two sorts of matter which are called s-matter and v-matter, respectively. The masses of the s-matter and the v-matter are all positive, but both gravitation masses are contrary to each other. There is no singularity and there is the highest temperature max T or the highest energy density max ρ according to the model. The evolution of the universe has been explained [1] when the cosmological principle holds in whole universe, and the problem of the cosmological constant can be solved. Some new predictions are given [1]. A definition of the locally conservative energy-momentum tensor is given based on this model [2].
In present paper we discuss the possibility that the universe is composed of infinite cosmic islands. The cosmological principle holds approximately in a cosmic island.
This idea of multiverse or parallel universes has been proposed for a long time, such as Ref. [3]. There still are some fundamental problems of cosmology, such as singularity and cosmological constant problems, in the concept of multiverse or parallel universes. This is essentially different from the model [1].
In Section 2 it is proved that there simultaneously are two sorts of symmetry breaking in the universe; In Section 3 evolution of a huge s-black hole inside an s-cosmic island and some predictions are discussed; In Section 4 the structure of the universe is discussed; In Section 5 to give a possible explanation to the orphan quasars and some predictions; The Section 6 is the conclusions.

The Possibility That There Simultaneously Are the Two Sorts of Symmetry Breaking
Here and below S Ω and V Ω are taken as an example to illustrate the change of the expectation values of Higgs fields in [1]. On the other hand, the expectation values of other Higgs fields can be determined when S Ω and V Ω are determined [1]. According to [1], there are the ( ) We will discuss the case in another paper.
In the below discussion the coordinate r and the O-zone are regarded as invariant. We discuss evolution of an s-cosmic island. It is obvious that the results are true for a v-cosmic island as well.
It is easily seen from [1] that the expectation values of other Higgs fields and the masses of particles can be determined from (1) and (2). In the I-zone, s-elementary particles get their respective proper masses, are colourless due to 0 S Ω =Ω and can form s-atoms, s-molecules and s-celestial bodies, but all v-elementary particles are massless, must possess some a sort of ( ) 5 V SU colours so that they must form colour singlets whose masses are not zero. There is no interaction of long range except gravitation among the ( ) colour singlets so that they can only diffusely distribute in the I-zone. Analogously, in the O-zone, v-elementary particles get their respective proper masses, are colourless due to gauge particles are not zero in the T-zone. However, it is possible that the particles form bound states similar to colour singlets for a shorter time which are called quasi colour singlets.
We compute the Higgs potential energy V in the spherically symmetric T-zone. Although the calculation result is not very accurate, but V to be finite is qualitatively correct. It is easily seen from [1] that when 0 It is obvious that the Higgs potential energy exists only in the T-zone.
We regard a as the variational parameter and I I r Rr = as invariant for a time.
a is approximately independent of R when I r is large.
Taking a rough approximation of T P that 0 a is regarded to be independent of I r , we get The energy-momentum tensor of ideal gas is ( ) where ρ and p are the gravitational mass density and the intensity of pressure of the gas. In order to consider the effect of T P on the evolution of the s-cosmic island, we suppose that there is a effective ideal gas with T µν and 0 u u Consequently, the Friedmann equations become [1] ( )  (15) is w → ∞ , i.e., 0 T ρ = . We will discuss it in another paper. International Journal of Astronomy and Astrophysics Here only the effect of the intensity of pressure T P is considered. The reasons are as follows.
A. The potential energy min V in the T-zone is the Higgs potential energy, and no gravitational potential energy coming from gravitational masses.
B. Let gT V , ST V and VT V be the gravitational potential energy, s-Higgs potential energy and the v-Higgs potential energy in the T-zone, respectively, C. No contribution of the total Higgs potential energy min V in (11) to the Einstein tensor ( ) It is seen that only the effect of T P should be considered.
It is obvious that min 0 V = when 0 2) If a v-elementary particle V E enters into the T-zone from the I-zone, it will get its proper mass VE m , and VE m will increase as  3) It is possible that a s-particle S E with its proper mass ES m enters into the T-zone from the I-zone. When it enters the T-zone, its mass ES m will decrease as be the intensities of the pressure of the s-particles and the v-colour singlets inside I-zone on the T-zone, respectively, and SI β and VI β be the probabilities of the s-particles and the v-colour singlets inside the I-zone to penetrate the T-zone, respectively, based on the discussion above, the intensity of the pressure of the particles in the I-zone on the T-zone is I P is regarded as the intensity of the counter pressure of T P .
The discussions above are true as well for the process in which the ( )

The Relationship of the Higgs Potential Energy and Temperature
The relationship of the Higgs potential energy and temperature is similar to that in (5.2) of [1], i.e., When max S V T T T , inflation will occur. The inflation process is a supercooled process. After inflation, reheating process will occur. If

Evolution of a Cosmic Island
Let max T P be the maximum intensity of pressure of the T-zone of an s-cosmic island in contracting process. We classify s-cosmic islands into three classes. The first class is called huge cosmic islands ( ) Evolution of the s-cosmic islands is determined by (16)-(17) and (14).
A. Evolution of an s-cosmic island in which there is inflation process.
Let there be a huge s-cosmic island ( ) This is because It is seen from (22)-(23) that ( ) and inflation occurs, The energy scale of the i.e., ( ) 1 S C will expand with an acceleration. A detailed calculation is similar to that of [1]. It it obvious that there must be such a time U t at which International Journal of Astronomy and Astrophysics ( ) Thus, after expansion and expansion with an acceleration, ( ) 1 S C will stop to expand and begin to contract.
B. Evolution of an s-cosmic island in which there is no inflation process. Let a large s-cosmic island ( ) Thus, when will expand. When the temperature S T inside the I-zone arrives max T , there are two ways of S T to drop. The first way is R increases as described above. The second way is that R will slowly increase due to (28)-(29) and a lot of the s-colour singlets escape out the I-zone when 0 t t > , so that S T drops to SO T , here SO T is the temperature of the s-colour singlets outside the T-zone. Consequently, the s-breaking occurs, > . The evolution process after reheating process is similar to those of inflation. The main difference is that the scale factor R is smaller in the reheating time in the process than that in the inflation process.
In the processes above, when R increases, some energies of s-particles and v-colour singlets transform into the Higgs potential energy in the T-zone; when R decreases, a part of the energy of the Higgs potential energy in the T-zone transforms into the energies of s-particles and v-colour singlets. It is easily seen that the I-zone of ( ) A v-observer outside ( ) 3 S C will detect a lot of v-particles to erupt in a very International Journal of Astronomy and Astrophysics short period. This indicates that the lifespan of a small cosmic island is very short and very small cosmic island cannot exist.
Particles inside an s-cosmic island can escape out, and some particles can enter into the s-cosmic island. But total effect is that the s-cosmic island continuously decrease its energy. Thus, when ( ) 2 S C again contracts, it will become ( ) 3 S C to disappear. It is seen that the lifespan of such an s-cosmic island with its will be short.

Evolution of a Huge S-Black Hole Inside an S-Cosmic Island
We classify s-black holes into two classes. The first class of black holes is such black holes which can contract and the temperatures inside them can arrive max T . The first class of black holes is divided into two sorts ( ) The second class of black holes is the ordinary black holes which cannot contract and the temperatures inside them cannot arrive max T . It is obvious that the mass and density of a first class black hole must be huger than those of a second class black hole. Evolution of a first class black hole is discussed as follows.
Let there be a spherically symmetric s-black hole ( ) To consider the contraction process of ( ) The inflation or expansion process after contraction of an s-cosmic island or a v-cosmic island in the universe is similar to the following process. To suppose that there is an infinite planar rubber membrane, its a zone of radius R becomes semi-spherical due to being heated. There is no significant change of its border, but the area of this zone has significantly increased in the process. Then the semi-spherical gradually become flat and tis border significantly increases.
It is obvious that the evolution of the first class of black hole is essentially different from that of the second class of black holes. It is possible that a second class black hole will disappear by the Hawking radiation.
It is seen from the above mentioned that s-matter and v-matter can transform into each other when the temperature T inside a black hole or a cosmic island arrives the highest temperature max T .

The Characteristics of the V-Cosmic Island and Some Predictions
1) The v-cosmic island inside a the s-cosmic island ( )

The Universe Is Composed of Infinite S-Cosmic Islands, V-Cosmic Islands and Transition Regions
As described above, the s-cosmic islands and the v-cosmic islands can simultaneously exist. Based on this, we think that the universe is composed of infinite s-cosmic islands, infinite v-cosmic islands and infinite transition regions among the s-cosmic islands and the v-cosmic islands. It is necessary that the cosmic islands adjacent to an s-cosmic island must be v-cosmic islands, because if two s-cosmic islands are adjacent, both will combine into a larger s-cosmic island. This is true for two adjacent v-cosmic islands as well. No information can be exchanged between an s-cosmic island and a adjacent v-cosmic island so that every observer thinks his cosmic island to be the whole universe. The evolution process of a huge cosmic island is as follows: Contraction, contraction stops, expansion, inflation, reheating process, expansion, expansion with an acceleration, expansion with a deceleration, expansion stops and contraction begin. There is no inflation process in the evolution process of a larger and small cosmic island. Every cosmic island has its life and death. The existing and changing forms of the cosmic islands must be diverse. It is possible that some cosmic islands are contracting, some cosmic islands are expanding, and other cosmic islands are stable for a time. Some cosmic islands are forming, and some cosmic islands are disappearing, some cosmic islands are combining to form a larger cosmic island, and some cosmic islands are splitting into few smaller International Journal of Astronomy and Astrophysics cosmic island. Every existence has its birth and death, and is changing. Only the universe as a whole is infinite and always unchanging, and contains all possible existing and changing forms.
The interior of cosmic island is uniform, but is not absolutely isotropic for such an observer who is not in the centre of his cosmic island. Thus, the cosmological principle holds only approximately within a cosmic island because every cosmic island must be finite. There is no singularity in every cosmic island and in the whole universe.
There are many s-black holes inside a huge s-cosmic island. A huge s-black hole can transform into a v-cosmic island in the huge s-cosmic island. The evolution of the v-cosmic island is the same as that of a large or small s-cosmic island. An observer in the s-cosmic island can detect the s-photons and neutrinos emitted by the v-cosmic island.
The present cosmological model is essentially different from the conventional cosmological theory. If the universe comes from a singularity as the conventional theory, there must be only one sort of breaking, there is no cosmic island, and the universe as a whole is variational. Ω are all very large [1]. Hence the interactions between s-particles and v-colour singlets by exchanging the Higgs particles must be very weak so that they may be ignored. The repulsion between s-particles and v-colour singlets are very weak and may be ignored as well.

No Information Can Be Exchanged between an S-Cosmic Island and an Adjacent V-Cosmic Island
Consequently, it is impossible that v-colour singlets are detected in an s-cosmic island, It is true as well that s-colour singlets cannot be detected in a v-cosmic island. Colour singlets have only the cosmological effects and are regarded as dark energy [1].
Let a ( ) 5 V SU colour singlet V S in an s-cosmic island enter into an adjacent v-cosmic island. V S is a dark energy particle in the s-cosmic island so that V S cannot carry any information to the v-cosmic island. After V S enters the v-cosmic island, it will splits into few v-particles whose proper masses are not zero. The v-particles and the original v-particles in the v-cosmic island mix together and cannot be differentiate from each other. Consequently, the s-cosmic island cannot convey any information to the s-cosmic island, and vice verse. Thus, the observers in every cosmic island will S. H. Chen International Journal of Astronomy and Astrophysics all think their cosmic island to be the whole universe. Although no information can be exchange between our cosmic island and the adjacent v-cosmic islands, some s-colour singlets inside the v-cosmic islands can enter into our cosmic island. The s-colour singlets entering into our cosmic island are visible particles. Consequently, in fact, the boundary of our cosmic island is slightly anisotropic, because the distribution of the adjacent v-cosmic islands. Around our s-cosmic island is not symmetric. Of course, the slight anisotropy is too hard observed.

Conclusions
Based on [1], a possible structure of the universe is presented. It is proved that there must simultaneously be two sorts of symmetry breaking in the universe. The universe is composed of infinite s-cosmic islands, infinite v-cosmic islands and infinite transition zone. It is necessary that the cosmic islands adjacent to an s-cosmic island must be v-cosmic islands. No information can be exchanged between an s-cosmic island and an adjacent v-cosmic island so that every observer thinks his cosmic island to be the whole universe.
The evolution process of a huge cosmic island is as follows: contraction, contraction stops, expansion, inflation, reheating process, expansion, expansion with an acceleration, expansion with a deceleration, expansion stops and contraction begin. There is no inflation process in the evolution process of a larger and small cosmic island.
The existing and changing forms of the cosmic islands must be diverse. It is possible that some cosmic islands are contracting, some cosmic islands are expanding, and other cosmic islands are stable for a time. But the universe as a whole is infinite, always invariable and contains all possible existing and changing forms of matter.
The cosmological principle holds only approximately within a cosmic island. To give a possible explaintion for orphan quasars. To predict some characteristics of contracting large and huge black holes in a cosmic island. The characteristics of the light coming from the contracting huge black holes are that the intensity of the light is huge relatively to their distance, the red shifts are huge, the distribution of the huge red shifts and the orphan quasars is anisotropic, and luminescence spectrum is very wide.