Discovery & Proofs of a Nucleus of Mass and Charge in the Photons/Quantum Particles

This work discovers and proves that all the photons/quantum particles have a “Nucleus of mass and charge.” The nucleus is located off-center in the particles. The constructive, destructive and intermediate Interference phenomena decisively discover and prove the presence of only one nucleus of the mass located off-center in a photon, like an atomic nucleus. The mass in the nucleus of a photon develops varying forces to move the photon as a wave. The Wave-Particle Duality is the most significant proof of such a nucleus of mass. The formation of an electromagnetic wave by a photon proves the presence of a charge in the nucleus of the photon. The Quantum Theory, developed about 100 years back, simplified the understanding of matter and energy at the atomic/subatomic levels. However, the Quantum Theory remains incomplete and cannot explain even a single quantum phenomenon. The New Quantum Theory, developed in the year 2012, is based on the similarity of an atomic nucleus as well as the solar system with the Sun as its nucleus of the mass and the charge. The New Quantum Theory explains all the Quantum Phenomena and matches with the Classical Mechanics as well as the Theory of Electromagnetism. The experiments described in this work, using high precision instruments, determine the mass, the charge and the diameter of a photon/quantum particle.


Hidden Mysteries of the Photons
All the photons/quantum particles display mysterious phenomena known for the last several centuries. For these fundamental particles, only nature provides the hints to solve their mysteries.
A mysterious particle of the photon has its mysteries hidden inside. The following characteristics of the photons and their analysis discover the mysteries hidden within a photon: -A photon never travels in a straight line; it moves like a helix/a smooth space curve in all the three planes or as a wave in a single two-dimensional plane. -A photon travels with an average speed of light in the direction of its travel, irrespective of its frequency and the amplitude of the wave it forms. -A photon always spins in one plane only. This plane does not change unless and until an external force or object interacts with the photon. A polarised photon keeps on spinning in the same plane and can travel hundreds of light years. -A photon continuously changes its velocity and the direction to move as a wave without any external force. Whereas, according to Newton's laws of motion, a force is necessary to change the velocity and the direction of a particle. -Therefore, a photon must develop the "Internal Forces" from within in all the 3 X, Y & Z-directions to form a helix or the forces only in 2-directions to form a wave in a single two-dimensional plane. Journal of Modern Physics -The magnitudes of these internal forces in the different directions change continuously with the spin of the photon to move the photon as a wave.
-A mass generates the force on acceleration. For a photon to generate variable internal forces, it must have a "mass" along with accelerations in the different directions.
-Since the mass of the photon is constant, the acceleration/deceleration in the different directions must vary continuously to generate variable internal forces in the different directions to move the photon as a wave.
-A spinning photon with uniformly distributed mass or the mass in the center cannot develop internal forces to move the photon as a wave.
-However, if a photon has its mass in an off-center position, the mass rotates at a constant linear speed with the spin of the photon around the center of the photon. The continuous rotation of the mass develops acceleration/deceleration in the different directions continuously.
-Therefore, the mass in the spinning photon experiences variable accelerations/decelerations and develops variable internal forces in the different directions.
-Only the presence of a mass, located off-center in a photon, develops the variable forces in the different directions by accelerating/decelerating with the spin of the photon. These internal forces, created by the mass of a photon, move the photon as a wave.
-Similarly, a charge located off-center in the spinning photon accelerates/decelerates and generates the electric and the magnetic fields of the varying intensities and directions to form an electromagnetic wave. -Both the mass and charge coexist in a so-called nucleus located off-center in the photon. There is nothing unique about the existence of such a nucleus in the photons; all the atoms have a similar nucleus of the mass and the charge. -Similarly, all the quantum particles must also have a nucleus of the mass and the charge located off-center. An electron has a definite mass, always moves as a wave and forms an electromagnetic wave due to its charge. An electron has to have both the mass and the charge located off-center in a nucleus to travel as a wave and generate a3 dimensional electromagnetic wave.
-A photon/quantum particle spins in the plane consisting the circular path of the nucleus and the center of the photon. The nucleus of the mass and the charge rotates in this plane only. -It appears that all the tiny particles in the universe have a nucleus of the mass and the charge located off-center. Exceptions, if any, are rare. The above peculiarities of a photon indicate the presence of a nucleus of the mass and the charge located off-center in the photon, as stated in the New Quantum Theory. Figure 1 shows a spinning photon as a yellow sphere with a small nucleus of mass and charge located off-center as a red sphere along with an enlarged view of the central photon. As the photon spins, the nucleus rotates in a circular path around the center of the photon. At the origin (0, 0), the nucleus is at 0˚ from Figure 1. Shows a spinning photon as a yellow sphere with a small nucleus of mass and charge located off-center as a red sphere. As the photon spins, the nucleus rotates in a circular path around the center of the photon. Figure 1(a) shows a complete photon, and Figure 1(b) shows an enlarged view of only the central part of the photon with a red nucleus rotating around the center of the photon from the phase angle (θ) to (θ + dθ) in time (dt). The phase angle (θ) of the nucleus (or the photon) is the angular position of the nucleus in the photon from X-axis with center of the photon as reference.
the direction of travel of the photon (X-axis) with center of the photon as the reference point. The phase angle or the angular position of the nucleus from the X-axis increases from 0˚ to 360˚ with the spin of the photon in a single wave cycle. From 360˚, the next cycle of the wave of the photon starts again from 0˚. If the angle of the nucleus is θ 1 from X-axis and the photon spins from the phase angle θ 1 to θ 1 + dθ 1 in time dt, the force in X-axis develops as under: -The circumference of the rotating Nucleus: 2πr -The linear speed of the rotating Nucleus: 2πrf -The velocity of the nucleus in the X-axis at phase angle θ 1 : The velocity of the nucleus in X-axis at phase angle θ 1 + dθ 1 : ( ) As a photon spins and moves, the nucleus of the mass and the charge located off-center accelerates/decelerates. Any moving charge generates both the electric as well as the magnetic fields. The charge in the photon generates the electromagnetic force along with the electromagnetic wave with the varying intensities and the changing directions.
A nucleus of the mass & the charge located off-center in a photon/quantum particle generates the mechanical forces as well as the electromagnetic forces.

Mass & Energy of the Photons-The Facts & the Myth
THE FACTS: -The mass and energy always exist together.
-The energy is only the "quantitative property" of a matter. No form of energy can exist without an object of mass. Any form of energy needs an object of mass to hold the energy.
-Similarly, every object of mass has some form of the energy. -A photon has its mass which is always constant. A photon possesses energy in various physical forms in addition to its mass.
-Planck's equation E = hf relates to the physical forms of energies of a photon.
-The mass of a photon is proportional to its frequency. Equation m = af calculates the "Mass (m)" of the photon of frequency f, where "a" is constant (a = 1.474499440284 × 10 −50 kg⋅sec) [2].
-Einstein's equation e = mc 2 relates to the conversion of energy to mass and vice versa involving the nuclear conversion. This energy "e" is in addition to the physical forms of the energy's "E" possessed by the photon. Both the forms of the energies "e" and "E" relate to the different types of the energies. The above myth must go.

Theoretical Proofs
All the Quantum Phenomena are the proofs and can only take place if a photon has a "nucleus of mass and charge, located off-center." Some of the important Quantum Phenomena as the proof of the presence of a nucleus of mass and the charge in a nucleus located off-center in the photons are presented below:

Polarisation Phenomenon
In the polarisation phenomenon, a photon/quantum particle forms a wave in a single two-dimensional plane. The continuously accelerating mass develops forces in a single two-dimensional plane to form a wave by a polarized photon.
The following characteristics describe the Polarisation Phenomenon: -A critical feature of a photon is: "A photon spins only in one plane and continues to spin in the same plane unless it interacts with an external force/object." -If a photon/quantum particle is a uniform particle with zero mass, there is nothing to restrict the plane of the spin of the photon and the formation of the wave in one single plane only. The photon is always at the liberty to keep on changing the plane of spin and to form the waves in the different planes, in such a case, the polarisation phenomenon for a photon with zero mass cannot take place. -Only the forces, developed in a single two-dimensional plane by the mass in the nucleus located off-center in a photon/quantum particle, limit the photon particle to form a wave in a single two-dimensional plane and display the pola-risation phenomenon. The direction of travel of a linearly polarized photon confines in the plane of the circular path of the nucleus/spin of the photon.
-The axis of rotation of the nucleus or the spin of the photon is the same and always perpendicular to the direction of travel of the polarised photon.
-As a polarised photon spins and travels in X-direction, the mass in the nucleus located off-center accelerates/decelerates to develop variable forces only in X & Y-directions. These forces, from within the photon, form a wave in a single two-dimensional plane.
- Figure 2 shows a polarised photon developing the variable forces F X and F Y with the spin of the photon to form a wave in a two-dimensional X, Y plane.
The one full wave cycle of the photon shows the position of the nucleus as a small red sphere at different phase angles with the spin of the photon starting from 0˚ to 360˚ with an interval of 45˚ along with the magnitudes of the forces F X and F Y being indicated by the size of the arrows approximately.
-The electric field wave of a polarised photon forms in a single two-dimensional plane; but the magnetic field wave always forms in the three-dimensional planes.
There are two types of polarisation phenomena: -Linear Polarisation Phenomenon: Already explained above.
-Circular Polarisation Phenomenon: If the direction of travel of a photon is outside the plane of its spin, the photon is circularly polarised. For a circularly polarised photon, the axis of rotation of the photon is not perpendicular to the direction of travel of the photon.
A circularly polarised photon moves as a smooth curve in three-dimensional space/a helix. The curve may be either clockwise or anticlockwise.
Whereas, the photon spins in the plane consisting the nucleus of the mass and the center of the photon, the circularly polarised photon travels in a direction outside this plane. Therefore, the whole photon along with the nucleus of the mass moves in all the 3 X, Y & Z-directions and creates variable internal forces These variable internal forces in X, Y & Z-directions move the photon to form a wave in the three-dimensional plane.
The Polarisation Phenomenon discovers and proves the presence of a mass located off-center in a photon.  -The phase angle or the degree of spin of a photon from 0˚ to 360˚ refers to the angular position of a substructure in the photon. This proves the presence of a substructure in a photon.

Interference
-The 0˚ phase angle of a photon indicates the position of the nucleus (substructure of the photon) at 0˚ angular position from the X-axis with the center of the photon as the reference. At the 0˚, the photon is at the origin (0, 0) or the start point of a new cycle of the wave. -As the photon spins and forms a wave the nucleus of the mass and the charge located off-center rotates around the center of the photon and the phase an-gle or the angular position of the nucleus increases from 0˚ to 360˚ in the photon in one wave cycle of the wave. -The two photons of the same frequency can superpose in the different phases to display different types of the Interference effects. If the two photons of the same frequency and in the same direction superpose, the two photons can join only in side by side position. Both the superposed photons keep on spinning in their direction of spin and move together. The mass in each photon being close enough, the strong force is applied to keep the superposed photons together. Figure 3 shows the two spinning photons joined side by side.

Constructive Interference
In the Constructive Interference of the two photons, the amplitude of the resultant wave doubles. When the two photons of the same frequency and in the same phase superpose, the angular positions of the nuclei of both the photons are also the same as shown in the part (a) of Only the presence of a mass in each photon generates the vertical forces in both the photons to double the amplitude. The phenomenon of Constructive Interference' with the double amplitude of the resultant wave discovers and proves: "A Photon has Mass."

Destructive Interference
In the Destructive Interference, the two photons superpose with a phase difference of π and form the resultant wave with the zero amplitude. The part (b) of The Destructive Interference is possible only in a condition: "The location of the nucleus of the mass is in the off-center position in the photons." However, the Destructive Interference phenomenon can also take place even if a photon has more than one nucleus of the mass, located off-center in the photon.
The phenomenon of Destructive Interference with the zero amplitude of the resultant wave discovers and proves: "A photon has the mass located in an off-center position."

Intermediate Interference
When the two photons, with a phase difference other than 0˚ or π, superpose the resultant wave with the amplitude > 0 but < double the amplitude forms due to the phenomenon of the Intermediate Interference.

Wave-Particle Duality
The Dual Wave-Particle nature of a photon awaits explanation since the year 1801. A particle of a photon/quantum always moves like a wave and displays the Therefore, the horizontal velocity (due to the mass in the photon) is also zero. In this quarter as the photon spins and moves from 0˚ to 90˚ phase angle, The horizontal velocity: Zero at 0˚ phase angle and the maximum at 90˚ The horizontal force: The maximum force at 0˚ phase angle and reduces to zero at 90˚ -At 90˚ phase angle, the value of sinθ is 1. Therefore, the horizontal velocity at 90˚ phase angle grows to the maximum.
-At 0˚ phase angle or the origin of a new wave cycle, the value of cosθ is +1.
Therefore, its vertical velocity (due to the mass in the photon) is the maximum. In this quarter as the photon spins and moves from 0˚ to 90˚ phase angle, the value of cosθ decreases from +1 to 0.
-The vertical velocity and the vertical force change from 0˚ to 90˚ as under: The vertical velocity: The maximum at 0˚ phase angle and reduces to zero at -At 90˚ phase angle, the value of sinθ is +1 with the maximum horizontal velocity. In this quarter as the photon spins and moves from 90˚ to 180˚ phase angle, the value of sinθ decreases from +1 to 0. -The horizontal velocity and the horizontal force change from 90˚ to 180˚ as under: The horizontal velocity: The maximum at 90˚ phase angle and reduces to zero at 180˚ The horizontal force: Zero at 90˚ phase angle and increases to the maximum at 180˚ in (−)X-axis -At 180˚ phase angle, the value of sinθ is zero. Therefore, the horizontal velocity at 180˚ phase angle (due to the mass in the photon) turns to zero.
-At 90˚ phase angle, the value of cosθ is zero with the zero vertical velocity. In this quarter as the photon spins and moves from 90˚ to 180˚ phase angle, the value of cosθ decreases from 0 to (−)1. The horizontal force: Zero at 270˚ phase angle and increases to the maximum at 360˚ in +X-axis -At 360˚ phase angle, the value of sinθ is zero; therefore, the horizontal velocity at 360˚ turns to zero. -At 270˚ phase angle the value of cosθ is zero with the zero-vertical velocity.
In this quarter as the photon spins and moves from 270˚ to 360˚ phase angle, the value of cosθ increases from 0 to +1. -The vertical velocity and the vertical force change from 270˚ to 360˚ as under: The vertical velocity: Zero at 270˚ phase angle and increases to the maximum Journal of Modern Physics at 360˚ in +Y-axis The vertical force: The maximum at 270˚ phase angle and reduces to zero at 360˚ in +Y-axis -At 360˚ phase angle, the value of cosθ is +1 with the maximum vertical velocity in +Y-axis and the photon completes the lower half of the wave.

To Find the Location of a Photon in Wave at Any Phase Angle
The following equations calculate the exact location of a photon in a wave cycle: A photon of frequency "f" spins from the phase angle θ to θ + dθ, the time and the average velocity are as under:

Formation of an Electromagnetic Wave
The following is the science of "The Formation of an Electromagnetic Wave by a photon": -As the velocity of the charge increases, the intensities of both the electric and the magnetic fields increase and vice versa. If the charge moves in the reverse direction, the directions of both the electric and magnetic fields generated are also in the reverse directions. -During the 1 st half cycle of the spin of the photon from 0˚ to 180˚ phase angle, the charge, in the nucleus located off-center in the photon, moves in the forward direction in comparison to the center of the photon. Figure 5 shows a spinning photon with the nucleus moving in the forward direction.
-The velocity of the charge in the nucleus in the forward direction increases from 0˚ to 90˚ spin and decreases from 90˚ to 180˚ spin of the photon or the phase angle. Therefore, the intensities of both the electric and the magnetic fields increase from 0˚ to 90˚ and decrease from 90˚ to 180˚ spin of the photon or the phase angles. -During the 2 nd half cycle of the spin of the photon from 180˚ to 360˚ phase angle, the charge, in the nucleus located off-center in the photon, moves in the backward direction in comparison to the center of the photon. Figure 5 also shows a spinning photon with the nucleus moving in the backward direction.
-As the charge moves in the backward direction during 180˚ to 360˚ spin, now both the electric and the magnetic fields are generated in the reverse/opposite direction. -The velocity of the charge in the nucleus (in the reverse direction) increases from 180˚ to 270˚ spin and decreases from 270˚ to 360˚ spin of the photon or the phase angle. Therefore, the intensities of both the electric and the magnetic fields increase from 180˚ to 270˚ and decrease from 270˚ to 360˚ spin of the photon or the phase angle, but in the opposite directions. -After completing one cycle of the electromagnetic wave formation in 360˚ spin of the photon, the new cycle of the electromagnetic wave starts again from 0˚ phase angle. The charge in the nucleus accelerates/decelerates to produce the electric field wave in a two-dimensional plane and the magnetic field wave in three-dimensional plane. Figure 6 shows one full cycle of the Electromagnetic Wave formed during the 0˚ to 360˚ spin of a polarised photon. The above describes the formation of an electromagnetic wave briefly only, as the "New Quantum Theory explains all the Mysterious Quantum Phenomena" [2] explains the formation of an electromagnetic wave by a photon with enough details.
The formation of an Electromagnetic Wave by a photon discovers and proves the presence of a charge in the nucleus located off-center in the photon.

Refraction
The phenomenon of refraction changes the direction and the velocity of a photon in the new medium. The secret of the refraction phenomenon are the interactions between the electromagnetic fields of both the photon as well as the new N. S. Agarwal Figure 5. The nucleus of the mass circles around the center of the spinning photon. The nucleus moves in the forward direction during 0˚ to 180˚ phase angle with respect to center of the photon. The nucleus moves in the backward direction during 180˚ to 360˚ phase angle with respect to center of the photon. Therefore, the direction of the travel of photon changes in the new medium.
- Figure 7 shows a photon moving from vacuum to a medium and again to the vacuum, the electromagnetic field of the medium changes the direction of the photon in the medium.
-As the photon travels out from the medium and its electromagnetic field, the photon is now out of the external magnetic field. Therefore, the photon tilts back to its regular plane of spin and direction, and all the above changes revert to the normal status.
As the photon enters a new medium and its electromagnetic field, the plane of the spin of photon tilts resulting in the following changes in the photon: 1) The photon travels in a new direction matching with the new plane of the spin of the photon as the forces developed by the mass in the nucleus are in the new directions.
2) The photon forms a wave in a new two-dimensional plane.
3) A medium always contracts the electric field of the photon in comparison to the vacuum. The reduction in the size of the electric field wave now formed by the photon reduces the wavelength of the photon in the medium. Therefore, the velocity of the photon reduces in the new medium. The phenomenon of Refraction discovers and proves the presence of a nucleus of the mass and the charge in a photon.

Experiments
When a photon reflects on a mirror, the rotating mass in the nucleus of the photon generates an inertial torque at the contact point of the mirror. This inertial torque deviates the photon very slightly in all the three axes. The new equation of reflection for a photon is as under: where "i" is the angle of incidence and "d" is the angle of deviation of the photon in an axis. This little deviation of the photons depends on the angle of incidence and the angle of polarisation of the photons. Generally, this deviation is tiny and below the noticeable limit. However, this little deviation on the reflection can be multiplied by the followings: a) By the second reflection of the deviated photons from a circular surface coated mirror. b) By reflecting a long chain of the photons. By repeating the constructive interference again and again, a long chain of the photon forms. When only the 1 st photon at the beginning of the chain contacts and reflects on a mirror, the torque of all the spinning photons transfers to the contact point of the 1 st photon with the mirror. Therefore, the angle of the deviation of the whole chain of the photons multiplies in all the three axes. Figures  8(a)-(c) shows the horizontal, inclined and the vertical chains of the photons for the reflection at the mirror. The most critical feature of any reflection experiment is the increase in the angle of deviation with the increase in the frequency of the photons under the same conditions. If the photons have zero mass, no inertial torque develops, and on reflection there is no deviation of the photons.
The deviation of the photons on reflection and the increase in the angle of deviation with the higher frequency photons prove the presence of a mass located off-center in the photons.
The following experiments prove and determine the mass, diameter & charge of the photons:

Multiple Slits in Series Experiment
-A set of a single and a double slit creates constructive interference of the two photons and join them side by side. A typical frame mounts several sets of such single & double slits in the series in perfect alignment with the facility to rotate all the slits together in 360˚ angles.
-Every set of the slits doubles the number of the photons joined together side by side from 2 to 4, 4 to 8, 8 to 16, 16 to 32 and so on by the constructive interference.
-When the same frequency photons join side by side, the strong force due to the mass in the photons is applied, and the photons join to produce a long chain of the photons spinning together. As all the photons are close enough, the magnetic fields of all the photons combine to form a single peak of the strong magnetic field.
-A magnetic field detector detects and records the combined magnetic field.
-The division of the combined magnetic field by the number of the photons calculates the strength of the magnetic field of a single photon which in turn calculates the charge of the photon using already known equations.

To Determine the Diameter of a Photon
-All the multiple slits in the horizontal plane form a long vertical chain of the spinning photons. Figure 7(c) shows a vertical chain of the photons with the mirror.
-A detector can detect both the ends of the chain of the photon after reflection or directly without reflection. The distance between the first and the last photon divided by the number of the photons calculates the diameter of the photon.
Note: The instruments with the required high precision are not available in the private laboratory of the author.

Conclusions
The essence of a photon/quantum particle is the presence of a nucleus of the mass and the charge, and the most critical feature is the off-center location of the nucleus in the particle. The intermediate interference decisively discovers and proves the presence of only one nucleus of the mass located off-center in the photons.