An Assessment of CPTED Principles in Relation to Bullying Behaviour *

This paper presents a preliminary study examining the potential influences of building design on bullying behavior and experiences, of a sample of Malaysia secondary school students. Bullying in school may be an early stage of the developmental sequence that serves as a strong predictor of delinquency and future crime. Through the discussion of findings in previous studies, environmental design approach is as one of the methods to bring down the level of crime in school. Crime Prevention through Environmental Design (CPTED) is an approach that uses environmental design as a tool to reduce crime from both the physical and the psychological aspects. The features of physical environment such as street layout, building design, lighting and physical decay can affect the occurrence and behaviour of criminals. The shortcomings in the physical environment could open up the opportunity for offenders. Thus, this study seeks to determine if there is a possibility that the actual physical environment in which students spend greater part of their day can affect behaviour, which in turn, can lead to violence in school. A survey was conducted at four secondary schools in Shah Alam, Selangor with a random sample of 406 students from Form 1, Form 2 and Form 3 involving the observation of 32 school blocks. Three principles of Crime CPTED were analyzed in the school environment. The results indicated that there is a significant difference in territoriality and school maintenance which results in the forming of the negative environment in the schools. It was found that this, in turn, affects the frequency of bullying occurring among the students in school.


Introduction
The quality of school life among the children in the school is disturbed by the phenomenon of bullying, and it has been recognized as a serious problem among the school society (Berthold & Hoover, 2000). Bullying can be defined as negative actions that repeatedly occur over a period directed against another student who has difficulty in defending himself or herself (Olweus, 1994;Wan Ismail, et al., 2010). From past research, at least 5 percent of the students in both primary and secondary schools were bullied weekly or more often in North America, Australia, Japan, Scandinavian countries and several countries in Europe (Roland & Galloway, 2002). The United States Department of Justice and the National Association of School Psychologists (NASP) estimated that 160,000 children missed school each day due to the fear of the bullies (Newman-Carlson & Horne, 2004). In the year 2013, approximately 3 percent of students aged between 12 and 18 years old are reported afraid of being attacked or harmed at school or on the way to and from school (Robers, Zhang, & Morgan, 2015).
Malaysia also does not behind from this phenomenon, and it has been a concern, especially for parents. Malaysia is a country with multi-ethnic, multicultural, and multilingual society. It is a country with the majority in Muslim, with significant Buddhist, Christian, Hindu religious minorities also being present.
The nature of secondary education system in Malaysia is categorized into three types which are National Secondary School, National Type Secondary School and Secondary Technical and Vocational School. In addition, there are also schools which specifically for single-sex. As for National Secondary School, there is a mixture of ethnic, gender and linguistic in school. The average size of schools regarding student enrolment is 35 to 40 students per class. In 2017, it was reported Selangor had recorded as the highest number of "hotspot" school for bullying cases as many as 76 schools, followed by Johor (63), Negeri Sembilan (40), Pahang (37) and Pulau Pinang (37) (Bernama, 2017). Until Jun. 2017, it was recorded 872 bullying cases occurred in the school (Raja Zaid, 2017). Recently in Jun. 2017, two students were dead because of bullying. One of the students had been beaten extremely using a belt, rubber pipe and hanger including abused using steam iron (80% body burns). The abused lasts up to two days.
Traditionally, bullying has not been viewed as a criminal act and has either been ignored or treated as a disciplinary matter in schools. In the meantime, there is no implementation of strong national policy that is fighting for school bullying, and the issues are left to individual schools. However, Malaysia government is in all effort to combat bullying in school. The victims apparently helped and supported by school counseling. The perpetrator will be dealt with criminal law and if serious can be expelled from school.
Bullying makes the lives of its victims miserable. It undermines their confidence and destroys their sense of security. It can also affect children and young people's attendance and progress at school. And there's evidence that, for some people, being bullied regularly as a child can also be linked to emotional prob-  (Hawker & Boulton, 2000;Nakamoto & Schwartz, 2010;Reijntjes Kamphuis, Prinzie, & Telch, 2010;Ken Rigby, 2003) and suicidal thinking (Rigby, 2003;Sourander, et al., 2011).
The previous researchers mostly focus on the larger scope which in neighbourhood context. A review of 122 evaluations of crimes prevention project by Poyner (1993) indicated that over half of the area of environmental design (24 out of 45) demonstrated the reduction of crimes. The evaluation was focused on lighting, fencing, design changes to improve surveillance opportunities, the cleanup of neighbourhoods, street changes, wider market gangways, electronic access control and modification. CPTED is an increasingly current approach and is being implemented on a global scale (Cozen, et al., 2005). Researched by Rasidah, Johari, Najib, & Salleh (2012) had shown high CPTED practices are able to reduce the fear of crime in the neighbourhood area. However, the crime in school should be noted as a serious problem as it could lead to criminal activity in the future (Andershed, Kerr, & Stattin, 2001;Min, et al. 2011;Olweus, 2011;Renda, Vassallo, & Edwards, 2011;Sourander, et al., 2011). Although physical environment is considered to be an important factor that affects crime in school in environmental criminology, there is not much of research in school crime context on how environmental approach may help in reducing school crime and increasing safety in school. Wilcox, Augustine, and Clayton (2006) had studied on physical environment and crime in Kentucky Schools. Differently, with Wilcox method which is the observation was more focus on an element in the main office, this paper method was more focus on an element in each building in school. Thus, this paper seeks to determine in a school context if there is a possibility the actual physical environment in which students spend the greater part of their day can affect behaviour, which in turn, can lead to school violence.

Definition of Bullying and Types of Bullying
Bullying can be defined as negative actions that repeatedly occur over a period directed against another student who has difficulty in defending himself or herself (Olweus, 1994.;Wan Ismail, et al., 2010). Negative actions referred to behaviour that was intended to inflict harm, injury, pain, or discomfort upon another individual (Atlas & Pepler, 1998). Meanwhile, Atlas & Pepler (1998) defined bullying as a form of social interaction in which there was an implied imbalance of power or strength in the interaction. The power of imbalance in bullying may not be limited to physical size and may be presented in the tone of voice, the physical stance of a bully or the number of children take part as bullies and the support of peers who were involved (Atlas & Pepler, 1998 people with negative action and has difficulty to defend on their own. Bullying behaviour may take many forms such as physical, verbal, (Olweus & Mortimore, 1993) and relational or social (Crick, et al., 1995). Physical bullying, such as hitting, pushing and kicking, and verbal bullying, such as name-calling and teasing in a hurtful way, are usually considered to be a direct form, while relational bullying refers to an indirect form of bullying, such as exclusion and spreading rumors (Espelage, Bosworth, & Simon, 2000;Wang, Iannotti, & Nansel, 2009).
Verbal bullying was the most widely performed type of bullying (Boulton, Trueman, & Flemington, 2002;Mohamad Salleh & Zainal, 2014;Rigby, 2008) that can be done quietly and covertly where the children are able to avoid detection and punishment (Atlas & Pepler, 1998). Boys were more involved in physical bullying, whereas girls were involved in relational bullying (Wang, et al., 2009).

Delinquency and Physical Environment in School
Creation of safe school environments has become a focus of prevention and intervention efforts in response to problems of bullying in schools. The sense of safety from any danger and perpetration is one of the important aspects that drive the quality of life of students. Feeling safe is important for a student to have a positive learning environment in school. Feeling of unsafe in school impacts mental health, absenteeism and academic success among the bullied (Hughes, Gaines, & Pryor, 2014). Schools encounter vulnerabilities to their safety and security in four major areas; 1) the design, supervision and use of school space (Astor, Meyer, & Behre, 1999;Durán-Narucki, 2008;Grana, et al., 2010;J Waller 2013;Kumar, M. O' Malley, & D. Johnston, 2008;Wilcox, et al., 2006), 2) the administrative operations and practices of the school (Vidourek, King, & Merianos, 2016) 3) the neighbourhoods and surrounding communities served by the school (Bowes, et al., 2009;Lee & Ha, 2015) and 4) the behavioural characteristics and histories of the students who are enrolled in the school (Atlas & Pepler, 1998;Farrington & Ttofi, 2011;Mohamad Salleh & Zainal, 2014).
As per mention, crime also is believed to be related to the physical environment (Liebermann & Kruger, 2004) as it plays an important aspect in the developing behaviours (Durán-Narucki, 2008). Some places in school are more exposed to crime than others because of inappropriate physical design, layout (Newman, 1972) and overlooked of unused spaces. The opportunity that exists due to lack of design, supervision and use of school space and environment encourage a criminal to act on a targeted victim (Liebermann & Kruger, 2004).
Ecological theories of crime had suggested that both social and physical characteristics can affect the crime (Shaw, 1942). The built environment is believed to be one of the factors influencing crime and the level of fear of crime in society (Sakip, Johari, & Salleh, 2012). According to Poyner (1983), human movement and behaviour are critically affected by the design and layout of the physical environment. Through daily interactions with the physical and social environment, individuals learn about their places in society, their value, appropriate and inap-  (Wilcox, et al., 2006). Some places are more exposed to crime than others because of inappropriate physical design, layout (Newman, 1972) and overlooked of unused spaces. Crime is believed to be related to the physical environment (Liebermann & Kruger, 2004) as it plays an essential aspect in the developing behaviours (Durán-Narucki, 2008). The opportunity that exists in an environment encourages a criminal to act on a targeted victim (Liebermann & Kruger, 2004). In deciding whether or not to commit an act of crime, the environmental element is one of the factors considered by criminals (Anastasia & John, 2007). From the previous study, regarding school crime and influence of environmental design, they had study on physical features (Wilcox, et al., 2006), lighting (Lee & Ha, 2015), land used (Lee & Ha, 2015;Wilcox, et al., 2006), neighbourhood physical environment (Wilcox, et al., 2006) and building condition (Durán-Narucki, 2008;Kumar, et al., 2008) in school environment and it affect student behaviour. According to Skogan and Maxfield (1981), in Melde & Esbensen (2009), the environment such lacks of maintenance as poorly kept buildings and unsupervised referred as "sign of crime", and people tend to fear with this environment which may develop a reputation for high levels of criminal behaviour. Several factors in the physical environment are perceived to impact on fear of crime including visibility and signs of neglected (Lee & Ha, 2015;Lorenc, et al., 2013). Dirt, decay, graffiti, litter and other sign of neglect of the environment are seen as drivers of fear (Lorenc, et al., 2013;Wilcox, et al., 2006). A proper surveillance and lighting at night are able to improve the visibility of the area thus reducing the fear of crime (Kitchen & Schneider, 2007;Perkins, Meeks, & Taylor, 1992) as to create visual clarity to the surrounding area. Although most exterior spaces of elementary schools are high-visibility areas, the hottest spots were behind the areas of the building which were low in visibility (Lee & Ha, 2015). A place which is not visible because of isolated which are obstructed by landscaping and building design are believed to increase the risk of attack, and hence fear (Lorenc, et al., 2013). Certain "hot spots" that indicated to be un-owned spaces such as hallways, dining areas, and parking lot where are the sights of more crime event and greater fear among students (Astor, et al., 1999). Astor, et al. (1999) claimed the presence sense of ownership of these locations has the potential to decrease the prevalence of victimisation in schools drastically. A good maintenance strategy directly impacts the fear of crime due to awareness of responsibility and caring for the targeted crime. It allows for the continued use of space for its intended purpose.
Studies by Shamsuddin, Bahauddin, & Aziz (2012) had indicated a relationship between the outdoor physical environment of the school and the students' social behaviours. However, the limitation of this research is not to evaluate the negative social behaviour related to schools environment. Certain "hot spots" that indicated to be unowned spaces are where the sights of more crime event create greater fear among students (Astor, et al., 1999). The presence sense of ownership of these locations has the potential to drastically decrease the prevalence of victimization in schools (Astor, et al., 1999). Through these studies, victimisation occurs most likely when the adults are limited in their abilities to monitor. The school structure may play an important part in giving a chance for individual children to involve in bullying behaviours (Atlas & Pepler, 1998). Craig, et al. (2000) reported that victimisation is most likely to occur in less structured environments. Studies showed that lower rates of school victimization were associated with the school safety interventions that are focused on improving the physical environment of the school (Johnson, 2009). Johnson (2009) concluded that physical environment appears to offer intervention opportunities to reduce school victimization.

Crime Prevention through Environmental Design (CPTED) as an Approach to Decrease Bullying Cases
Crime Prevention through Environmental Design theory promotes a sense of safety and decrease the incidence of crime in any given environment by reduction of opportunities for crime to occur. This reduction is achieved by employing physical design features that discourage crime, while at the same time encouraging legitimate use of the environment. It is an approached from both the physical and the psychological aspects at the same time. There is a growing body of research that supports the assertion that crime prevention through environmental design is effective in reducing both crime and fear of crime in the community (Cozen, Saville, & Hillier, 2005). CPTED focuses on the relationships between people and environment. The behaviour and movement of human were significantly affected by the architectural design and layout of the physical environment (Poyner, 1983). The crime patterns due to human behaviour and daily routine were determined by environmental design factors (Felson, 2006). There are four principles in CPTED which is territoriality, surveillance, maintenance and access control. A review of 122 evaluations of crimes prevention project by Poyner (1993) indicated that over half of the area of environmental design (24 out of 45) demonstrated the reduction of crimes. The evaluation was focused on lighting, fencing, design changes to improve surveillance opportunities, the cleanup of neighbourhoods, street changes, wider market gangways, electronic access control and modification. CPTED is an increasingly current approach and is being implemented on a global scale (Cozen, et al., 2005). Researched by Rasidah, Johari, Najib, & Salleh (2012) had shown high CPTED practices are able to reduce the fear of crime. Noted that improved territoriality, indicated school ownership, and improved surveillance are essential factors to a better perception of safety in school (Wilcox, et al., 2006). Crime Prevention through Environmental Design (CPTED) is one of crime prevention that had been applied variously in the residential and commercial area. However, there is not much of research in school crime context on how

Methodology
The site selection for the present study is based on the highest number of perpe-  (2010) To examines the relationship between the level of school disrepair and substance use among students attending regular high school (RHS) and alternative high school (AHS) √ Findings indicated that students attending AHS with greater school disrepair were more likely to report the use of marijuana and other illicit drugs (i.e., cocaine, heroin). Students attending RHS with greater school disrepair were less likely to report smoking cigarettes Katherine J. Waller (2013) To determine the relationship between level of school violence and school physical environment as perceived by teachers The results of this study verified a significant relationship exists between the school environment and disruptive behaviours. There was no relationship found between the school environment and violent behaviours. Physical state of a school environment in terms of the age, state of repair, cleanliness, lighting, heating and cooling, etc., to impact the occurrence of disruptive behaviours as perceived by teachers Lee & Ha (2015) The relationship between visibility and fear of crime in environments using an automated quantitative analysis method √ √ Locations for which fear of crime was reported had lower levels of visibility compared to locations not associated with fear of crime. The rear areas of buildings; areas located near newly built buildings; areas between buildings; curved or recessed walls; parking areas; and playgrounds were hot spots Advances in Applied Sociology because Selangor is an urban city with high population density and infrastructure of the built environment. Urbanization has created many social problems and crime had become a common phenomenon in all urban area (Adel, Salheen, & Mahmoud, 2014;Ghani, 2017).
With the assumption of the number perpetration in school is linear with the number of bullying in school, Selangor is chosen as a location in this study. The selection of Selangor as site study is relevant due to the news reported in June 2017, the Ministry of Education had list as much as 402 schools nationwide which have been identified as having disciplinary issues among its students and Selangor states was recorded as highest bullying case and highest number of "hotspot" school (Bernama, 2017). Thus, Selangor states were chosen as the site study in this paper.
Thereafter, the data from the Selangor State Education Department was acquired to get the number of misconduct cases in Selangor district schools.     Empat. The studied school has a mixture genders and ethnic. Towards achieving the objective, 406 respondents were randomly selected from four secondary schools in Hulu Langat Selangor and 32 blocks of the school building. The respondents involved in this pilot survey were students from the lower form. The survey was done for a period of five days, beginning at 7.20 am until 6.45 pm as the school involve two sessions. The morning session of the school involved Form Three, Form Four and Form Five. Meanwhile, the evening session of the school involved Form One and Form Two. However, the respondent is from Form 1, Form 2 and Form 3. One class from each form was randomly chosen in each school and the questionnaire randomly distributed to the respondent in the class involved. Duration of 10 -15 minutes was required for each respondent to fill the respected questionnaire forms. The measurement design of the sense of safety in school components was based on the review of previous literature that is relevant to the sense of safety in school components.
In order to examine the effect of physical environment on school bullying, the variable will be measure based on CPTED element which was territoriality, surveillance, and maintenance. School level territoriality is operationalized with two different measures which are symbolization element and ownership element. The element is measured based on the number of the element. The indicators of the ownership are sculptures, school field, garden furniture and mural. School level surveillance is measured based on the observation of a building on how it will give the opportunity to student bullying another student. The item is asked about the hidden corner, the visibility of the building from another, the provision of lamps, the visibility of school activity area and the design of the building. The scale were coded 1 = very unsatisfied which refers to the ability of vision between 0 -20 percent, 2 = dissatisfied which refers to the ability of vision between 21 -40 percent, 3 = neither satisfied nor dissatisfied which refers to the ability of vision between 41 -60 percent, 4 = satisfied which refers to the ability of vision between 61 -80 percent and 5 = very satisfied which refers between 80 -100 percent. Meanwhile, school level maintenance is measured by observation of 7 elements of school disorder. The school disorder is including, the presence of graffiti, litter, broken window, and broken doors. The response of the item is the same as the surveillance scale. The scale had been adapted from Sakip, et al. (2012) study on CPTED and fear of crime.
The dependent variables for this analysis were based on the probability of a student being bullied which involving the frequency of a student been bullied for In this section contain 15 items that divided into three sub-scale which are physical bullying, verbal bullying and antisocial bullying. The response was range from 1 = never, 2 = once a month, 3 = 2 to 3 times a month, 4 = once a week and 5 = 2 to 3 times a week. The questions were asked in Bahasa Melayu which is reliable with the school type.
Thus, 31 items from questionnaire and observation form were accepted in the analysis and can be used in the analysis.
Demographics data such as school name, gender, form and race were obtained from the respondents.  , 1967). An analysis of variance in Table 8 showed that the effect of dif-  The room door at school is in good shape 0.77 Item 5 All windows in school are in good condition 0.77

Item 6
The lane paths of the school are in good condition without graffiti, garbage, damage, and paint on the walls in good condition 0.72

Item 7
Garbage is well maintained in building blocks 0.73 Advances in Applied Sociology   Based on the four analysis that had been done, SMKJE and SMKTT mostly had significant differences in overall school environment based on three CPTED principle. Territoriality principle is closely related to maintenance principle in presence sense of ownership in school. A significant difference was showed in relational bullying in which occur when the students were socializing among the others. Thus, this study showed that there is a possibility the actual physical environment in which students spend the greater part of their day can affect behaviour, which in turn, can lead to school violence.

Discussion
The purpose of this paper was to determine if there is a possibility the actual physical environment in which students spend the greater part of their day can affect behaviour, which in turn, can lead to school violence.  can affect the behavior of crime (Poyner, 1983;Wilcox, Augustine, & Clayton, 2006).
Apart from that, the physical environment which forms different school environment may influence the bullying behaviour in school. Tables 9-11 show the findings on physical features in four secondary schools based on three CPTED elements. Based on the finding on territoriality element in Table 9, the result indicated that significantly different in element per block between SMKJE and SMKTT. SMKJE had more physical features with seven blocks of school building compared with SMKTT which had ten blocks of school building but less element per block.     sculptures. From the observation in the schools, SMKJE set more resting place for a student to socialize with each other compared with SMKTT. A good conducive landscaped is believed to directly or indirectly assists in providing space for leisure and interacting with landscape components (Ali, Rostam, & Awang, 2015). This paper may have proven that the level of certain components of landscapes at the school in the region is significant can create a sense of ownership by setting up gazebo, pergola, bench, garden tables, signboards and flower pots.
Schools that include permanent student artwork in the interior spaces of school buildings also will foster student ownership (Killeen, Evans, & Danko, 2003).
This can be proved by the mean (μ) value of relational bullying in SMKTT is higher (μ = 1.52) than in SMKJE (μ = 1.32).
However, even though the school layout and design were different in each school, but the in monitoring each building can be done. This finding was showed in   cated that significantly different in those schools. The result on maintenance level in SMKJE showed that the level was 61% to 80%. Meanwhile, the level of maintenance in SMKTT was 41% to 60%. Figure 5 and Figure 6 were a comparison between the bench and stairs between both schools. Paint condition in SMKTT stairs was not in good condition with graffiti compare with SMKJE. The bench for the student to sit also not in good condition in SMKTT with bird dropping on it. Even though the element of plants were also had at SMKJE bench, but the bench was in good condition.
Lacks maintenance in SMKTT may develop bullying behaviour similarly with the previous study by (Lorenc, et al., 2013;Wilcox, et al., 2006). Dirt, decay, graffiti, litter and other sign of the environment are referred as "sign of crime", and people tend to fear with this environment. These findings tend to support previous studies on physical environment and student misconduct by Wilcox, et al. (2006).

Conclusion
As a whole, there is a possibility the actual physical environment in which students spend the greater of their day can affect bullying behaviour in secondary school. The physical environment surrounding the child has a great influence on his or her development. Well-designed schools can positively affect learning by focusing on issues such as location, building materials, size of classrooms, furniture, lighting, temperature, ventilation and noise level. Bullying in school may be an earlier stage on developmental sequence leading to a strong predictor of de-Advances in Applied Sociology linquency and future crime. The ecological theory suggested that physical characteristic can affect the crime (Shaw & McKay, 1942). A well-structured school physical environment helps to promote learning and encourage positive social interactions among students. Poor designs such as dim lighting, poor lines of sight and narrow corridors are cited by young people as being to blame for the sense of fear and risk associated with these out of the way places. The physical condition and on-going maintenance of the school building are an important factor in setting a positive school tone. A clean, well-maintained building is fundamental to the creation of an optimal environment for teaching and learning. Lack of monitoring has made these out of the way locations prime spots for vandalism and graffiti and contributing to the feeling of being unsafe. The school community has to focus on developing a good environment in school. Achieving good design and environment is about creating places, buildings, or spaces that work well for everyone, look good, last well, and will adapt to the needs of future generations. Further analysis of regression analysis can be tested between the type of environment in school and the incident of bullying when the other factors such as social status, gender, ethnic and language are controlled.

Limitation
The study only focuses on secondary school and not involved boarding school and technical school because of similarity spaces that majority of all schools had. Compared with the boarding school, the secondary students tend to have smaller spaces. Boarding school had more spaces to monitor as it involved hostel for students. There are limitations on the school design in obtaining a comprehensive picture of factors associated with bullying victimisation due to the different design and arrangement of school.