Motivators of Students’ Persistence on Distance Learning Programmes in Ethno-Religious Crisis States in Nigeria: Implications for Counselling

The purpose of this study is to determine students’ persistence on distance learning programmes despite ethno-religious crisis in twelve Northern States in Nigeria. States selected for the study are Borno, Yobe, Adamawa, Talaba, Gombe, Bauchi, Jos, Kaduna, Kano, Niger, kogi and Sokoto states that suffered the worst ethno-religious crisis from 2009 to date. A survey design via expo facto was adopted for the study. Sample for the study were distance learners, (200 to 400 levels) who registered for the 2012/2013 examination, and 480 were selected from the 12 Study Centres through purposeful, and stratified random sampling techniques. Data for the study was collected through a rating scale which was administered and collected at the spot by the research assistants. Participants were asked to rate the shortlisted factors – (Intrinsic- Personal and Extrinsic- support network factors) according to their levels of perceived significant influence on why they persisted on their programmes of study, despite the ethno-religious crisis. Experts in the Directorate of Learner Support Services were used to validate the content and face validities of the instrument while test-retest reliability method was used and Cronbach Alfa was .78 was established. Descriptive and Pearson Moment Correlations Coefficient analyses were used to determine the relative rating of each motivator. The findings were that intrinsic motivators like: desire to complete the programme was rated highest followed by desire for personal growth and faith in God. The least motivator was, study centre learning environment, followed by security provided at the centre and Tutorial facilitators’ responses or feedback. The Pearson Moment Correlations Coefficient analysis indicated .83 level of relationship between extrinsic and extrinsic motivators. Recommendations will be proffered at the end of the study and implications for counselling would be discussed. Counsellors


Introduction
The purpose of this study is to investigate the influence of perceived motivators responsible for students' persistence on distance learning programme in an ethno-religious crisis ridden environment such as is being experienced in 12 states in North West, North East and North Central Geo-political zones of Nigeria. Recently Nigeria has been grappled with recurrent religious and ethno-religious conflicts especially from the late eighties, precisely 1987. The orgies of violence precipitated by inter and intra religious, ethno-religious or inter-ethnic conflict has become a recurrent phenomenon in Africa. In Nigeria, especially in Northern part of the country, ethno religious conflict has assumed a dreadful dimension that the Federal Government Nigerian declared the state of emergency in three states of Maiduguri, Yobe and yola in May 2013. Though Horowitz, (1985); US Agency for international development, (2009) posit that conflict is an important issue in many ethnically diverse countries, however its spread has dramatically disrupted traditional development and could spill over borders thereby reduce growth and prosperity across entire region. Kuka (2000) sees conflict as constructive social action, an agent for reclassification of society which has helped to catalyse social decay into positive social progress and development.
Ethno-religious conflict fractionizes the society, destroys infrastructure, services, assets and livelihoods, displaces populations, break social cohesion, institutions and norms and also creates fear and distrust. Ethno-religious conflict in Nigeria has destroyed many lives and prosperities worth of billions of Naira. The large scale destruction of lives, houses, places of worship and shops forced a large number of people in the affected areas to be displaced. Many opted to relocate outside their normal places of abode or even outside their state of origin for their safety. According to Human Right Watch as cited by Ndujihe, (Feb;, between July and December 2010, at least 85 people were killed in some 35 separate incidents while 2011, at least 550 dead were recorded in some 115 separate incidents. In 2012, eight hundred and fifteen people died in some 275 incidents in 12 states in the Northern and Central states and Abuja in Nigeria.
The ethno -religious crisis has not only affected the smooth operations of NOUN study centres located in these states but has resulted in the death of some of the students. For example in Damaturu, the death of two distance learners while five learners of Maiduguri Study Centre were killed and the resulted in relocation of many students of the study centres to other much safer parts of these state and the country were reported. In some of these states affected by this crisis, telephone services which are vital modes of communication between distance learners and the study centres were disrupted through the destruction of critical telecommunication equipment. Some operators of Internet Cafes closed down their business centres and fled the town. Banking services were suspended for some time and their staff relocated to other safer parts of the country at the height of the crisis. In addition is the restriction of movement in major towns of these states by the governments of the affected states especially states under emergency rule. All of these constraints made it difficult for distance learners in states to easily access their portals or come to the study centres located in these states for any form of assistance. Inspite of these challenges, and threat to life by members of the insurgent groups, some distance learners have continued to show interest in their programmes by contacting the centres through various means, and expressed their determination to persist on their programmes until completion.

Theoretical Models of Distance Learners' Persistence on ODL Programmes
In order to establish the theoretical model for this study, the researchers deemed it necessary to define motivation operationally and cite different authors that have worked on distance learners 'persistence on ODL programmes.

Definition and types of motivation
The word motivation has come from the Latin word 'movere' which means 'to move'. According to the Dictionary of Education are reasons or a reason one has for acting or behaving in certain manners or driving force behind human behaviour. Motivation is an integral factor that arouses, directs, integrates and sustains behaviour towards a goal (IGNOU2009). Motivation is a general term for conditions that cause one to begin an activity and pursue it with vigour and persistence. . Note that by this definition, motivation not only instigates behaviour but also operates to reinforce on going behaviour.
Motivation energises the behaviour and interest of the learner. It sustains the interest and behaviour for longer time. It directs and regulates our behaviour. Motivated state is often described as guided, directed and goal oriented (IGNOU 2009). It is directed towards a selective goal which the individual sets for himself/herself. The motive is terminated by the achievement of goal (Behaviour is selective) Efficiency and adequacy are increased in motivated state of behaviour. Motivation initiates action or behaviour (I GNOU, 2009). For the purpose of this study, the researchers would rely on the definition of motivation as a general term for conditions that cause one to begin an activity and pursue it with vigour and persistence.

Types of Motivation
There are two broad types: of motivation, intrinsic (internal) and extrinsic (external) motivation Intrinsic Motivation: If the individual recognizes an activity as self-rewarding and takes it up then it is called 'intrinsic' motivation. The individual takes up the activity because it gives him pleasure or satisfaction. Here, the urge to take up the activity springs from within the individual and not from any external force. Intrinsic motivation is related to 'psychological' rewards such as the opportunity to use one's ability, a sense of challenge and achievement, receiving appreciation, positive recognition and being treated in Extrinsic Motivation: If the motivating force is outside the activity and also outside the person then the motivation is said to be 'extrinsic'. Engaging in activities for material rewards that they bring is extrinsic motivation. Incentive Extrinsic motivation is related to tangible rewards such as salary and fringe benefits, security, promotion, contract of service, the work environment and conditions of work. Motives can be divided into two types: external and internal.
Internal motives are considered as the needs that every human being experience, while external indicate the presence of specific situations where these needs arise. It is important to sound a note of caution here; there is not clear demarcation between the two types of motivation since one metamorphosing into another in one situation or the other. That extrinsic motivation can be internalised by the individual if the task fits with their values and beliefs and therefore helps to fulfil their basic psychological needs. .From this perspective, extrinsic motivation can be seen at one end fluidly flow into intrinsic motivation at the end of the continuum..

Extrinsic Motivation Intrinsic Motivation
However, the purpose of this study, definitions of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation mentioned above, served as yardsticks in selection of intrinsic and extrinsic motivators.
Many theoretical models of distance learners' Persistence on their programmes of study have emerged in the last few decades. The earliest attempts to explain persistence according to Rovai (2002) were based on psychological models. One of such models was that of Fishbein and Ajzen (1975) which theorized that a student's decision to persist on a programme of learning is largely based on previous behaviour, attitudes and norms that derive behavior through formation of intent to learn. Commenting on the intent to learn, Corno and Kanfer (1993) opine that volition is the mediating factor between intentions to learn and behaviours to learn. They define volition as those thoughts and behaviours that are directed towards maintaining ones intention to achieve a specific goal in the face of all difficulties and challenges. Heckhausen and Kuhl (1985) view volition as a psychological state characterized by thoughts about the implementation of goals into action and laid emphasis on self-regulation in the context of persistence. According to them, motivation may be a strong reason for students to enroll into a distance learning programme, but those students in programmes that are difficult and require sustained effort may encounter declining motivation, especially in the face of serious challenges. In such a situation, they opined that volitional processes become important in explaining persistence.
Other psychological models that explain students' persistence are Tinto's model (1975Tinto's model ( , 1987Tinto's model ( ,1993 and Bean and Metzner's model (1985). Tinto's model proposed that both student characteristics and interactions with the social and academic environments of the institution are the principal determinants of educational goals and institutional commitments (Kemp, 2001). Tinto (1993) proposed that institutional commitment and goal commitment directly influence persistence or dropout behaviour. Institutional commitment refers to the degree to which a student is motivated to graduate from a particular institution, while goal commitment refers to the degree to which a student is motivated to earn a college or university degree. In turn, institutional and goal commitments are directly influenced by external demands and psychosocial factors (Kemp 2001). Psychosocial factors, rather than directly impacting performance outcomes such as persistence, mediate the antecedents to these outcomes. For example, self-esteem, although not directly related to persistence, had a direct impact on three key constructs within Tinto's model, namely academic integration, social integration and institutional commitment (Munro, 1981). Bean and Metzner (1985) develop their model for online distance learner which they define as older than 24 years, non -residential, attending part time, not greatly influenced by the social environment of the institution and primarily interested in taking courses, receiving certification or earning a degree. Their model was based on four themes, namely academic performance, intent to leave, background and defining variables and environmental variables. Bean and Metzner's (1985) model is one of the first model to examine the role of the external environment (such as job, family, social environment) on a student's success in persisting. The authors for example conducted a study on factors that aid student persistence on their educational programmes. Sample for the study were traditional age (18-24years) full-time students, traditional age part-time students and older part-time students. They reported positive relationships between parental support and peer relationships on persistence decisions. In addition, other evidence also exist that the establishment of supportive personal relationships with faculty, peers and other significant persons, help distance learners to cope better with the demands of college and persist on their programmes (Ostrow, Paul, Dark and Berhman, 1986;Parella, 2000;Comings and Cuban, 2002).
Apart from the psychological models reviewed above, empirical studies have also shown that persistence on distance learning programme is influenced by a number of other factors. Resilience for example has been identified as a quality or factor that characterize individuals who though exposed to significant stress and adversity in their lives, do not succumb to the educational and life failures. In a study on the relationship between persistence in distance education programme and resilience, life events and external commitments, kemp (2001) finds that four resiliency skills (relationships, general resilience, initiative, insight) and five resiliency sub-skills (attaching, persistence, valuing, recruiting, generating) were significantly correlated with persistence on distance learning.
McGiviney (2009) investigates factors that influence the persistence of adult learners in online undergraduate courses at the community college level. Quantitative analysis of survey result from 476 distant learners enrolled in online courses at two community colleges indicate that the desire to complete the degree, previous experience in online courses and assignment completion are the strongest predictors of persistence and course completion. Discussing adult student persistence on distance learning programme, Link (2006) also identifies four factors supporting student persistence. The factors are awareness and management of the positive and negative forces that help and hinder persistence, self efficacy, establishment of a goal by the student and progress toward reaching a goal.
Bunn (2004) conducts a qualitative study on student persistence in a Library information science programme of distance education. Distance students enrolled into the Master of Library and Information studies at the Victoria University of Wellington, New Zealand constituted the sample for the study. The result of the study showed that College status, graduating term, comfort with online course work, flexibility, asynchronous format and time management were among the factors responsible for students' persistence on distance learning. Morris, Fennegan & Wu, (2005) conduct a study on tracking student behaviour, persistence and achievement in online courses. Sample for the study was made up of 423 online undergraduate students at the University System of Georgia. The study revealed that great point average (GPA) was a significant factor in online students' persistence. Muse (2003) reported similar evidence with combination of GPA and age. Harrell and Bower (2011) also find grade point average (GPA) as significantly predictive of students' persistence.
Holder (2007) investigates hope, academics, environment and motivation as predictors of persistence in higher education online programme. The study revealed that flexibility, asynchronous format, time management, self-efficacy, personal growth, self-motivation and support, are important factors that increase motivation to complete a course and promote persistence on distance education programme.
Parker (2005) conducts a study on the predictors of academic persistence in distance education. Sample for the study was made up of 95 online and face to face students and 4 faculty instructors from a community college in Arizona. The study showed that self-efficacy, personal growth and self-motivation promote course completion and persistence on distance learning programme.
Stanford-Bowers (2008) conducts a study on persistence in online classes: a study of perceptions among community college stakeholders. Thirty nine volunteers from 10 community colleges in Alabama constituted the sample for the study. The result of the study showed that flexibility of the programme, asynchronous format and time management encourage students' persistence on distance learning programme. Muller (2008) in a study on persistence of women in online degree completion reports similar evidence in addition to satisfaction and relevance, self-efficacy, personal growth, self-motivation, social connectedness and support.
Ojokheta(2010) conducts a study on a path -analytic study of some correlates predicting persistence and students' success in distance education in Nigeria. Sample for the study were 1245 students from 200-400 level courses in two distance learning institutions in Nigeria. The study showed that quality of interactions and feedback pattern have a direct effect on students' successful completion of online courses. The study also showed linkage of learning environment, motivation, feedback and perception to positive student outcomes However, none of the studies reviewed above investigated factors responsible for students' persistence on distance education in an ethno-religious crisis ridden environment. Also with the exception of Ojokheta's (2010) study, all the other studies were conducted outside Nigeria. It was in view of the above limitation that this study is designed to find out the determinants for distance learners persistence on distance education programmes in 12 NOUN Study Centres and National Teachers' Institute in Kaduna , in spite of the life threatening ethno-religious crisis that Damaturu is experiencing.

Research Questions
1. What are the intrinsic and extrinsic motivators for distance learners' persistence on their programmes of study in the ethno-religious crisis states in Nigeria? 2. Is there any significant relationship between intrinsic and extrinsic motivators for distance learners' persistence on their programme of study in the ethno-religious crisis states in Nigeria?
Research Hypothesis 1. There is no significant relationship between intrinsic and extrinsic motivators for distance learners' persistence on their programme of study in the ethno-religious crisis states in Nigeria Methodology A survey design was adopted for the study. Sample for the study would be randomly drawn from single mode Distance Learning institutions study centres within the 12 states in Nigeria. The total of 2, 400 samples will be selected from 12 NOUN selected study centres and 80 students from NTI (males & females). The samples will be randomly selected from 200 -400 level distance learners who registered for their studies in 12 NOUN Study centres. Data for the study was gathered through rating scale using checklist. The students were asked to rank the following determinants the order of 1 to 24. The ordinal position of 24 is for the strongest determinant while the least position of 1 is therefore occupied by the weakest determinant. Intrinsic/Personal Motivators: Desire for personal growth, self-efficacy and self-confidence, selfmotivation, faith in God for protection, personal resolve to complete programme, desire to earn a degree learners' perceptions of course materials as users' friendly, desire for promotion, desire to gain knowledge, self-esteem/sense of belonging, self-actualization and confidence in security agents tackling the security challenges Extrinsic Motivators/ Support Network: Security provided at the study centre, availability of study materials, support from study centre staff, support from peers/classmates, support from family/spouse flexibility of the programme, support from work place, Counsellor's Support, technological and media support, tutors responses or feedback, institutions' social interaction pattern andconducive Learning environment The questionnaire requires participants to honestly assign numerical importance of significance (1 to 24 in ascending order) to the perceived motivators that might influenced their decisions to persist on their programme of study despite the ethno-religious crisis being experienced with its attendant challenges in their study centres. Data collected was analysed using Descriptive statistics and Pearson Moment Correlation coefficients. Considering the objectives of this study, first objective is to establish the mean rank of each motivator. The respondents' intrinsic motivator of desire to complete their programmes was the most persistent motivator in an ethno-religious crisis states, followed by desire for personal growth and faith in God ranking. Self-efficacy ranked 4th, self-motivation ranked 5th, desire to earn degree ranked 6th, counsellors support ranked 7th, supports from the family / spouse ranked 8th, supports from the study centre staff ranked 9th, desire to gain knowledge ranked 10th, self-actualization ranked11th, supports from peers /course mates ranked 12th, desire for promotion ranked 13th, self-esteem and sense of belonging ranked 14th, flexibility nature of the programme ranked 15th, supports from place of work ranked 16th, study centres social interaction pattern ranked 17th, technological and media supports ranked 18th, perception of course material as user friendly ranked 19th, confidence in security agents tackling the security challenges ranked 20th, availability of study materials ranked 21st, tutorial facilitators responses or feedbacks ranked 22nd, security provided at the centre ranked 23rd and the extrinsic motivator of study centre conducive learning environment ranked 24th as the least persistent motivator to distance learner students' in ethno-religious crisis states of Nigeria.
Hypothesis: There is no significant relationship for the persistence in programme of study between Intrinsic and extrinsic motivators among distance learners 'in the Ethno-religious crisis states of Nigeria.  Table 3 shows that the Correlation is significant at the 05 (2-tailed). The result of .83 indicates a significant relationship for the persistence in programme of study between intrinsic and extrinsic motivators among distance learners in the ethno-religious states in Nigeria therefore rejecting the above stated null-hypothesis

Discussion on Findings
Considering the objectives of this study which was to determine the intrinsic and extrinsic motivators for distance learners' persistence in their programme of study in the ethno-religious crisis states in Nigeria, it is observed that, From the table above, it is evident that six intrinsic motivators occupied the first 6 positions in the ranking order of the motivators responsible for distance learner's persistence on their programmes of study in the selected study centre inspire of the ethno-religious crisis. . These are the desire to complete the programme, personal growth, faith in God, self-efficacy, self-motivation, and the desire to earn a degree. Evidence from the findings indicated that, the respondents were intrinsically motivated than extrinsically motivated. It goes to confirm that distance learners who are intrinsically motivated are likely to persist in their programmes of study despite all odds. Distance learners are who are intrinsically motivate more likely to engage in the task willingly as well as work to improve their skills, which will increase their capabilities. . Adult learners are likely to be intrinsically motivated if they: ∑ attribute their educational results to factors under their own control, also known as autonomy, ∑ believe they have the skill that will allow them to be effective agents in reaching desired goals (i.e. the results are not determined by luck), ∑ are interested in mastering a topic, rather than just rote-learning to achieve good grades (From Wikipedia, the free encyclopaedia 2012) ..
In other hand, :firstly, extrinsic motivators in this study are support network, the distance learners are to enjoy while studying under distance learning system .As evidence in this study, extrinsic motivators occupy the last 10 positions(as from 14 to 21) in ordinate positions of the ranking. From the evidence above, it is implicitly clear that the support system in NOUN is neither effective nor efficient nor adequate nor appropriate etc.
Secondly, as shown on table 3, though, there is a significant relationship between intrinsic and extrinsic motivators of the respondents in the face of ethno-religious crisis, there is urgent need to strengthen the support system. This result could be attributed to the ordinate positions of extrinsic motivators such as counsellors' support, support from the family/spouse, support from study centre staff, and support from peers/course In this case, the distance learners could be help to internalise the extrinsic motivators.

Discussion
These findings are supported by the findings of previous studies on distance learners' persistence on distance education programme. McGivney (2009) in his study found the desire to complete a programme as an important factor influencing distance learners decision to persist on their studies. Bunn (2003) also reported that personal resolve and determination to succeed and complete a programme, strongly contribute to students' persistence on distance education programme. Link (2006) also found self-efficacy and the desire for personal growth as important that aid distance learner's persistence. Other studies which provided evidence on self-efficacy and self-motivation as important factors which aid distance learners persistence, include the studies of Parker(2001), and Ivankova and Stick (2007). Faith in God was also listed by respondents as one of the motivators which influenced their decision to persist on their programme, despite the ethno-religious crisis in Damaturu. This should be expected from students living in a sharia state where everything is given religious interpretation and all successes and failures are attributed to God. Perrella (2000) in his study also found faith in God as one of the important factors which aid distance learners persistence.
Other motivator listed by respondents also include support from family/spouse, support from peers/class mates, support from study centre, flexibility of the programme, desire for promotion and support from work place. Previous studies of Parrella(2000), Comings and Cuban(2002), Bunn(2003), Park and Choi (2006), Holder(2007), Ivankova and Stick (2007), Muller(2008) and Stanford-Bowers(2008) reported similar evidence.

Implications of the findings to student counsellors
1. Desire for personal growth, self-efficacy, self-motivation and personal resolve to complete a programme and desire to earn a degree. These are factors associated with distance learners' personality and if properly developed and encouraged would lead to higher persistence rate among distance learners. Thus the beliefs that students create, develop and hold to be true about themselves are vital forces in their academic success or failures. Students would exercise selfdirection and control towards achieving goals and objectives to which they are committed. Student Counsellors should support and encourage distance learners to believe in their own selfefficacy and take responsibility for their own learning. This will help distance learners to persist on their programme in the face of all environmental challenges. 2. Support from study centre. Sustained open relationships between distance learners and staff of study centre, especially Student Counsellors, can reduce stress among distance learners and provide support for persistence and completion of programmes. Therefore Student Counsellors should not only serve as confidantes but should also support and help distance learners develop the values and attitudes needed to persevere in their study, to achieve a high level of academic performance. 3. Support from family members, peers and work place. Support from family members, peers, and workplace and significant others can encourage distance learners to persist on their programmes and achieve programme completion. Fostering coordination and connection among distance learners facilitates cooperative learning and peer helping. Student Counsellors can encourage peer support by establishing study groups or learning circles through which distance learners can share knowledge and provide each other with peer support which also aid persistence among distance learners. Support from work place is also an important factor which aid distance learners persistence on their programme. As Student Counsellors visit organizations on advocacy, they should solicit for more support from organizations to their staff who are enrolled or wish to enroll into distance education programme of NOUN.

Conclusion
. When motivation is applied to learning, motivation is what pushes a student to try to learn or to expand his/her energies in a particular direction. With a desire to learn, there is almost no limit to what a teacher and learners can accomplish. Without motivation, the effort of a teacher providing opportunities for new experience and understanding, all to no avail

QUESTIONNAIRE
Determinants of Students' Persistence on Distance Learning Programmes in Ethno-Religious Crisis States in Nigeria: Implications for Counsellors I am a student counsellor in the National Open University of Nigeria, currently undertaking a research on "why you persist on your programme despite your ethno-religious crisis ridden environment" The information collected will be strictly used for research purpose and confidentiality of the information will be strictly maintained. I therefore solicit for your cooperation