Evaluation of District-Based Indigenous Farmers’ and Researchers’ Fertilizer Application for Optimal Maize Production

Most research-based fertilizer inputs proposed for small scale farmers to increase their productivity do not achieve the required results and should consider indigenous practices. This study evaluates the practices of nutrient fertilizer input by farmers and researchers and relates them to their corresponding yields and profit so as to establish the appropriateness of the practices in 13 districts of the Northern regions of Ghana. Soil nutrients assessment of Nitrogen (N), Phosphorus (P) and Potassium (K) contents used to evaluate the soil NPK status was based on previous studies. Data on fertilizer application by farmers and researchers were obtained from the Savanna Agricultural Research Institute (SARI). The amount of N, P and K fertilizer input in 13 Districts and its associated maize grain yields by both farmers (89) and researchers were calculated and compared using two-sample t-test. The t-test results indicated that average amount of fertilizer input by researchers was significantly (p < 0.05) higher than the average amount of fertilizer input by the smallholder farmers, but the high fertilizer input did not significantly (p = 0.74) increase researchers’ maize yields and profits in all 13 study districts grouped together, but there was maize increment in only eight districts. On the average, farmers from five districts applied low fertilizer and recorded low yields. However, when researchers increased quantities of fertilizer applied in these five districts, yield significantly (p < 0.05) increased. The outcome showed that smallholder farmers in these five districts could increase maize yields by 36% in the region should they adopt the maize production strategy by the researchers. The study concluded that, for best options, recommended fertilizer doses to enhance maize yields should consider dis-trict-specific farmers’ practices and soil NPK status. The study could enable better implementation of location-based nutrient recommendation in the Northern Region of Ghana.


Introduction
Sustaining soil fertility for crop productivity is a key to ensure food security in every country. To manage poor soils and ensure sustained productivity, smallholder farmers will require adequate and affordable inputs [1]. One such major input required is to apply fertilizers to the soils that have low productivity due to nutrient mining and continuous cropping. Fortunately, several researchers [2] [3] [4] have proposed fertilizer application rates to help farmers boost their production. Nevertheless, some smallholder farmers continue to record low yields upon adoption of such fertilizer dose rate recommendations as compared to their previous practices [5]. This observation makes it necessary to document results from researchers' experiments at different locations and compare with indigenous farmers' approaches in order to properly promote fertilizer rates recommendation. Furthermore, in order to ensure that the appropriate fertilizer recommendation is proposed in a technology, it is essential to study the spatial distribution of the soil nutrients so that the nutrient requirements of the locations could be considered during fertilizer recommendations [6]. Field investigations on farming practices by both farmers and researchers therefore have to be continuously monitored to ascertain their performance. To effectively implement such monitoring systems, it becomes prudent to collect data on locations where researchers conduct their field demonstrations as well as what informs the choice of a technology in a particular locality. This is because soil fertility management practices are means by which soil services are managed in order to increase the quality and durability of such services. Hence, the soil management practices should be an integrated approach that will lead to the development of technologies that produces desired outcome economically and socially [7].
Integrated approach necessitates the need to find ways to identify technologies and to ensure proper monitoring of where, why and how recommended technologies are contributing to increased crop production [8]. Generally, farm locations lack proper location-specific characterization that makes it feasible to recommend technologies at locations having similar soil characteristics [9]. This contributes to wrong adoption of recommended technologies which normally do not achieve required results. Furtherance to wrong technological adoption is the fact that some smallholder farmers record better yields with their farm practice compared to recommended researchers' technologies [5]. This anomaly calls for thorough investigation in order to document such practices to intensify research for better output. The significance and relevance of this study lie in the fact that However, that perception is flawed when initial background check on what pertains to the smallholder farm has not been investigated. Farmers may suffer low productivity comparably to previous productivity; however, caution must be taken to find alternative means of increasing their yields without making them worse off by ensuring that location-specific characteristics and farm practices of the locations are being considered. This is because there have been several soil fertility management procedures for yield increment yet smallholder farmers continue to suffer yields decline almost every year. Some smallholder farmers have reported that this decline in crop yields is worse compared to when they were implementing their own fertility management practices. But the good news is that locations where researchers' soil fertility management has been successful, farmers have been able to increase both yields and profit. This study therefore aims to assess soil management practices by smallholder farmers and researchers and compare their crop yields based on their NPK status and profitability for decision making. All other factors responsible for maize production were made constant. The significance of this study is that it will provide new insight into the performance of novel technological recommended researchers' demonstrations aimed at finding solutions to farmers' problems of decline yields. It will also serve as a means of strengthening researcher/farmer collaboration as a way of improving overall yields and profitability at specific locations.

The Study Area
The study was conducted in thirteen districts in three regions in the Northern part of Ghana (Savanna, Northern and North East regions) with a total territorial land area of about 70,384 km 2 . The regions lie geographically within latitudes N9˚30' and N10˚00' and longitudes W0˚51' and W1˚00' with a mean elevation of 149 m above mean sea level [10]. They are located within the Guinea-Savanna agro-ecological zone [11] which is mainly characterized by dryness and unimodal rainfall patterns. The mean annual rainfall of the region has been reported to be between 750 mm and 1050 mm. Nevertheless, about 80% of the land area is used for agriculture [12]. The average temperature of the region is about 28˚C but could be as high as 40˚C during the dry seasons February/March [13]. The average soil fertility status of some selected chemical indicators are: 0.02% -0.05% N, 0.6% -2.0% Organic matter, 2.5% -10.1 mg•kg −1 soil of available P and soil pH of 4.5 -6.7 [14]. Some major food crops mainly cultivated in these areas include maize, millet, yams and sorghum, and these regions are considered to be  Figure 1 presents the map of the study area.

Data Collection and Analysis
Farm practice data regarding the use of fertilizers from farmers and soil research projects were obtained from the Savanna Agriculture Research Institute (SARI), Tamale in the Northern region of Ghana. Crop yield data on maize (2011,2012 and 2013) collected from both farmers and researchers were also obtained from SARI and used to assess the differences in crop yield that informed further analysis in this study. Maize crops were solely considered for the study because of the season of data collection whereby maize was being harvested by majority of the farmers and documented; and also as it serves as the major staple crop in Ghana. Field location data points obtained with the GPS provided the coordinates of locations of farmers' fields. Soil samples from five farm locations within each district were used to assess the variation in concentrations of major soil nutrients-N, P and K. The preparation of the soil nutrient status map has been described in [15] and is presented in Figure 2. The data analyses were per-

Evaluation of the Relationship between Amount of Fertilizer Input by Farmers and Their Corresponding Yields
The relationship that existed between quantities of fertilizer input by farmers and their corresponding yields was evaluated. This relationship was to determine whether the blanket recommendation of 375 kg•ha −1 of NPK application had any significant increase on farmers' yields, regardless of the location of the farms in the districts. All other variables that contribute to yield outcomes such as climatic conditions and sowing dates were held constant due to data constraints, and were not included in the data analysis. The hypothesis for this analysis was that, if fertilizer input by farmers was exceeded from the blanket recommended rate, it would have a significant impact on the maize yield if all other conditions were favourable. Agricultural Sciences mendation (i.e., 375 kg•ha −1 ) and 3) farmers whose fertilizer input exceeded the blanket recommendation (i.e., > 375 kg•ha −1 ). The selected 89 farmers were considered because they had both their amount of fertilizer input and corresponding maize yields available in the database provided by SARI. The data used for this study were subjected to regression and variation analyses to analyse the relationship and variability that existed between and within these three groups, with their corresponding yields using SPSS (22 nd edition). The amount of fertilizer input applied is the independent variable and it is a categorical variable, while the dependent variable was the corresponding maize yield.

Homogeneity Test of Variance between Farmers' Fertilizer Input
Test of homogeneity of variance was performed on the three categories of farmers fertilizer application to determine how comparable the quantities of fertilizer inputs were. The homogeneity test assumed that samples used were from populations of equal variances, meaning variability of scores for each of the groups were similar. Therefore, Levene's test of equality was performed at significance level of p < 0.05 for equality of variances on the farmers' maize yields as part of the analysis of variance.

Analysis of Variance of Farmers' Fertilizer Input and Corresponding Maize Yield
After the test of homogeneity of variance, a one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) between and within groups was conducted to explore the varied impact of amount of fertilizer applied on the maize yield outcome. Subsequently, the effect size, which is given as eta squared, and expressed as the amount of associated variation that was accounted for by the effect of fertilizer application on maize yield and error obtained [16] in ANOVA, was determined. The effect size was determined as: 2 sum of squares between categories Total sum of squares eta = (1) [16] The effect size which does not over rely on statistical significance to draw conclusions [17] determined whether the obtained means of grain yields within the categories in the analysis of variances were large or small. Cohen (1992), classified effect size of 0.01 as small effect, 0.06 as medium effect and 0.14 as large effect.

Evaluation of Amount of Fertilizer Input within Farmers' and Researchers' Practices and Recommendation of Location-Specific Practices from Researchers' Demonstrations
Data from field demonstration trials that researchers had made, as well as practices of farmers on their farms with regards to fertilizer application that were collected were categorised for comparison in order to select the best practice for each district under study. Eighty-nine (89) smallholder maize farmers' data were

Processing of Fertilizer Input and Maize Yield Output in Researchers' Demonstration Plots
The various field trials that had been demonstrated to the farmers by the researchers were also grouped and sorted for each of the 13 districts by linking each maize yield output to its corresponding treatment in the demonstrations.
The groupings were categorised for a 3-year period from 2011 to 2013 cropping seasons. From the acquired data, four treatments within four demonstration plots were identified for the 13 districts. The maize yield obtained from each treatment in the demonstration plot was assigned to each district as the resulting yields from the treatment and grouped accordingly.
The treatment which produced high yields from the trial demonstrations in the various districts for at least 2 years within the 3-year period (i.e., after evaluation of treatments and maize yields) was then selected to represent that The percentage increase in the crop yields was also calculated to assess how much crop yields would be gained if such specific measures were to be adopted by the smallholder farmers within the districts.

Evaluation of the Profitability of Proposed ISFM Strategy and Farmer Practice
The identified researchers' demonstration trials were assessed in terms of cost of inputs and prices of maize grains to obtain the benefits that could be derived by smallholder farmers should they adopt the strategy. The current prices of fertilizers, maize seeds, and fertisoil were obtained from agro-dealers and confirmed with those of the farmers and researchers. The cost of inputs for each district was then used as cost for inputs for both the farmers and researchers. The existing sale prices for 50 kg bag of maize grains at farm gate were also obtained from farmers through survey interview and used to estimate the price of the maize yield output by farmers and researchers. The cost of input variables per hectare for producing the highest yields obtained from the demonstrations were calculated by adding the prices of each input variable. The price of the grain produced per hectare was also obtained by multiplying the maize grain yields by the price of 50 kg of maize grains. The variable cost of inputs was then deducted from the sale price of maize grains produced to obtain the benefit or contribution. Contribution is the reserve which comprised of fixed cost like labour cost or price of insecticide (which could be unique for both farmers and researchers) and profit.
A profit volume ratio (P/V), which is a relationship between contribution or benefit and sales of products [19] was calculated to compare the profitability of farmer and researcher practices. The P/V ratio was calculated as shown in Equation (2):

Contribution
Sale Microsoft excel software was then used to derive a comparison plot of the   (Table 1). Further analysis revealed that, even though the variances in maize yields were not significant (p = 0.90), the differences between the means of maize yields for the categories of fertilizer used were significantly large as given by the calculation of the effect size ( 2 eta = 0.06) in Equation (1); (i.e. mean maize yields between farmers who applied less than 375 kg•ha −1 and those who applied 375 kg•ha −1 (recommended)) was 344 kg•ha −1 , that of farmers who applied 375 kg•ha −1 and those who applied more than 375 kg•ha −1 was 427 kg•ha −1 and the difference between those that applied less than 375 kg•ha −1 and those that applied more than 375 kg•ha −1 was 771 kg•ha −1 ( Table 1).

Assessment of N, P and K Nutrient Management and Appropriate Location-Specific Options
The relationship between different amounts of N fertilizer input and maize grain yield The mean grain yields of smallholder farmers who applied fertilizer below the average of 375 kg•ha −1 (2608 kg•ha −1 ) did not significantly (p = 0.90) vary from the mean grain yields of smallholder farmers who applied above 375 kg•ha −1 (3379 kg•ha −1 ) as shown in Table 1.
Nevertheless, the results on the use of fertilizer based on the three categories  Farmers who had other sources of organic input such as animal manure and crop residues applied them to their fields in addition to the compound fertilizers.  adoption in the study area revealed that certain treatments produced higher yields consistently in the 13 districts for a period of 3 years; the lowest mean yield was obtained in Karaga district (1719 kg•ha −1 ) and the highest was obtained in Kumbungu district (4103 kg•ha −1 ) as shown in Table 2.

Comparison between Farmer and Researcher Fertilizer Use and Maize Yield in the Study Area Compilation and evaluation of different treatments conducted by researchers for
The fertilizer input and the mean grain yields from selected (6 -9) representative smallholder farmers' fields for each of the 13 districts are shown in Table 3.
Comparative results from t-test analysis showed that the average fertilizer used by the researchers was significantly (p < 0.05) higher than the average fertilizer input by the smallholder farmers. Regardless of the higher fertilizer input, the mean maize grain yield obtained from the researcher demonstration trials in all the 13 districts was not significantly (p = 0.74) higher than the smallholder farmers' grain yields ( Table 4).

Recommendation of fertilizer application and maize production option from ISFM demonstration strategies
The trials demonstrated by the researchers increased maize grain yields in five districts whilst smallholder farmers' practice on fertilizer input also produced better yields than the researchers' in eight other districts. In locations where researcher trials produced better yields (i.e., increase of researchers yield over     (Table 5). These demonstration trials differed from one district to another (Table 2), and hence the demonstration trials that produced increment in grain yields compared to those from other demonstration trials in each of those districts were recommended to be implemented in such districts. Results from t-test that compared the maize grain yields from the demonstration plots and the farmers' fields in the five districts where ISFM strategy caused increase in maize yields showed that their mean yield was significantly higher (p = 0.03) than that of the farmers' (Table 5).

Comparative Profitability Assessment of Farmers' Practice and Proposed ISFM Interventions
The cost involved in the production of maize within farmers' practices and proposed ISFM strategies are presented in Table 6 and Table 7. The results present the cost involved in the purchase of fertilizers and maize seeds; and hence other input cost for the production of maize were regarded as same for both researchers and farmers. The P/V ratios for the five districts were high for both farmers and researchers (i.e., above 0.5). But, the P/V values for Zabzugu and Gushegu districts were higher for the farmers (0.8 and 0.9, respectively) than the researchers (0.7 and 0.8, respectively), and same for farmers and researchers in     . Source of seed prices [3]: All other input variables and practices were regarded as constant and remained same for smallholder farmers and researchers.
Kumbugu, Nanumba South and Yendi districts ( Table 6 and Table 7). However, the profit margins were higher for researchers in Zabzugu, Kumbugu, Nanumba South and Yendi districts but lower in Gushegu district ( Figure 5).

Fertilizer Application Strategies by Smallholder Farmers and Their Corresponding Maize Grain Yields
The production of maize is highly influenced by fertilizer application even though other external input like improved seeds, organic manure and even the use of pesticides is important. Therefore, it was expected from this study that different amounts of fertilizer application will cause different maize yield outputs. However, Levene's test of homogeneity implied that the variances in the maize yields from the smallholder farmers were similar irrespective of the fertilizer applied (whether below, within or above recommended (375 kg•ha −1 ) (the recommended amount was obtained from survey data, this study; SARI, 2013)).
Even though the test of homogeneity was not statistically significant, the actual differences between the mean maize yields in kg•ha −1 (2607.54, 2951.79, and 3379.20) for the three fertilizer categories (<375 kg•ha −1 , 375 kg•ha −1 , and >375 kg•ha −1 , respectively) were averagely large. The differences were explained by the medium effect size of 0.6 obtained for the analysis. The average variation differences imply that the amount of fertilizer input within any of the three fertilizer categories affected the maize yields increment [20]. For a relatively small sample size (89) as used in this study, it is quite difficult to obtain statistical significance difference in maize yields of farmers even if there are obvious distinctions in the fertilizer application [16]. Other factors may also contribute to the seemingly equal variances in the maize yield which necessitated further evaluation in a follow up study.
In Sub-Saharan Africa, fertilizer application on maize fields has been reported to be lower than the crop requirement [21]. Due to the low application, maize yields are also generally low. However, increase in fertilizer application rates and quantities on maize fields have correspondingly increased yields to some extent, yet yields are far below the potential. This has led to the persistent call by researchers to address food security problems by increasing fertilizer inputs to increase maize yields [22]. The N, P and K fertilizers as analysed in this study, however, gave different contributions as to how they cause maize yields to vary.
From this study, it was noted that indeed increasing N fertilizer input increased maize grain yields to a peak of about 65 kg•ha −1 N. The maize grain yields were not responsive to N input above the peak, which might have been due to some other limiting nutrient factors (Zinc and Boron) prohibiting the maize crops to make use of the added N nutrients [23]. From the sample data on smallholder farmers in the study area, it was observed that farmers who used fertilizer more than the recommended quantity were about 19%, and those that used fertilizer below the recommended were about 55%. The study, therefore confirmed the and that they needed to be increased. However, it must be noted that, higher N fertilizer application does not necessarily increase maize yields due to possible low agronomic use efficiency of higher N applied [24].
Phosphorus and K did not explain much of the variations within the maize grain yields because the quantities of P and K fertilizers applied by smallholder farmers in the study area did not vary much (almost the same quantities of 38 kg P 2 O 5 (17 P) and 38 kg K 2 O (31 K) per ha; Table 3 and Table 4). There was no considerable range of variations within the P and K applications and hence a predictable relationship could not be properly established between these variables and the maize yields [25].

Comparison between Fertilizer input and Maize Grain Yields in 13
Districts of the Study Area The test of comparison suggests that, even though researchers were applying high N and relatively the same amount of P and K fertilizer rates in the region, it did not translate into average yield output significantly (p = 0.74) higher than the farmers' output in the 13 districts.
Further evaluation of fertilizer input revealed that even though minimum amount of inorganic N (<64 kg•ha −1 ) and relatively the same amount of P (17 kg•ha −1 ) and K (31 kg•ha −1 ) fertilizer input were used in six districts (Table 3), there was an increase in maize yield. A study by Whiting, et al. [26] reported that minimum amount of fertilizer could increase crop yields. However, it was noted from this study that the minimum addition depended on whether or not that minimum amount (<5 bags of NPK 15:15:15 and 2.5 bags of SoA per ha as applied by the smallholder farmers in those communities) was sufficient in those locations to produce the required maize grain yields. Also, the minimum addition to some extent, depended on availability of cattle manure to some of the smallholders who may apply same on their fields. Soils in Districts like Karaga and Tamale Metropolitan (Table 3) where minimum N fertilizer input yielded high maize yields could be deemed as highly responsive to the N fertilizer inputs [27]. Although low levels of applied fertilizer could lead to nutrient mining and imbalances in the long run [28], maize crops respond highly to the low levels because the small quantity of the applied N could cause high uptake by the maize crops [29], In addition, the relatively high yields obtained from low N fertilizer input could be due to the fact that most farmers around these locations used cattle manure in addition to the fertilizers. Addition of cattle manure and other animal resources, as well as the incorporation of crop residue, could increase maize yields even though minimum inorganic input was used [30] due to the synergistic effect between organic and inorganic materials [18].
Knowledge on nutrient requirement and availability at specific locations is also necessary because five other districts also used low N fertilizer input yet their maize yields remained low ( ties of manure needed for effective maize production. Low use of organic manure in these districts [31] could have contributed to the low maize grain yields. The quantity of fertilizer input and their corresponding maize yields emphasised the fact that fertilizer recommendation must be promoted, especially in Northern Regions of Ghana, since increased N fertilizer application by researchers in the demonstration trials increased maize yields in the five districts. The promotion, however, should be district (location) specific and must reflect the availability and use of other local resources such as animal manure and crop residues [32]. Fertilizer inputs are sometimes scarce and not available to all smallholder farmers [33]. Therefore, to ensure that sufficient inorganic fertilizer quantities reach smallholder farmers for the intended use, it is essential that the nutrient contents of their farms be assessed as shown in this study using generated NPK contents distribution maps ( Figure 2) as a guide. Moreover, it will provide a better opportunity for smallholder farmers who do not apply fertilizer on their farmlands to get access to the fertilizers and adopt their use [33] according to their nutrient needs. It is also important to recognise nutrient management practices by indigenous smallholder farmers on their farms [34]. This is because some of their practices yielded better results than those of the researchers ( Table 2 and Table 3). What is important, according to Tittonell, et al. [27], is to promote the use of inorganic fertilizer in order to make the soils fertile enough to increase yield. The fertilizer use should be promoted especially in locations where the soil produced low maize yields and farmers did not have access to other organic fertilizer materials. In such locations, soils could be deemed less fertile or less responsive to fertilizer input [35] due to other limiting factors and constraints in the soil that impede nutrient availability [36], causing the applied nutrients not to be available to the maize crops; and such situation requires extensive research. Responsive soils show acceptable responses to input fertilizer even when they are minimal [37]. Other factors that might have contributed to the low maize yield output are poor rainfall distribution in the region, whereby some locations might receive less rainfall than others [38], inherent properties of the soil or soil forming processes [39].

Recommendation of ISFM Options in Low
Maize Yield Output Districts Majority of maize fields are found in the savannah areas where the soil has the required physical characteristics to support its production [40] [41]. Generally, what affects the soils production capacity in savannahs is the level of nutrient contents, which when well managed can enhance maize production [42]. Since the mean N, P and K nutrient contents around these locations are below the average requirements for maize production due to continuous removal of the vegetation cover [14], ISFM nutrient management practice that produces higher maize yields is regarded as a better option to meet food security demand [15]. in the demonstration trials produced the highest maize yields and was therefore recommended in the district. The identified ISFM strategies for the five districts represented a location-specific remedy for each of these five districts.
It must however be noted that, although the practice from the researchers' demonstration may give desired and increased maize yield (Table 5), they may not be beneficial in terms of increased farmers income ( Figure 5). The production of maize involves making investment in inputs to maximise yields and increase smallholder income [43]. The P/V ratio obtained for both farmers and researchers practice indicate that indeed the demonstration trials have equal P/V ratios in Kumbungu, Nanumba South and Yendi; and so, since the maize yields of the researchers were higher than those of the farmers in such districts, the researchers' strategies would be deemed better than the practices of the farmers because it would bring about food security as well as sustained income for farmers. The P/V ratios for Zabzugu and Gushegu districts were higher for farmers than the researchers practice and, in this instance, the farmers practices would be deemed as appropriate in order to secure their income and improve their livelihoods other than producing more maize yields and obtaining reduced income. Maize production with higher P/V ratios would be preferred to production with low P/V ratios [19]. However, since profit is one of the main goals in making investment [44], where the profit margin is higher would be preferred, (taking for example, what happened with researchers' profit compared to farmers' profit in Zabzugu district (see Figure 5)).

Conclusions
Low levels of N, P and K contents in the Northern part of Ghana could be improved with the use of fertilizer to reduce the wide variation in nutrient contents to support maize production. However, the application of the fertilizer amount should be based on the nutrient contents already in the soil and other resources available to smallholder farmers. Evaluation of farmers' and researchers' fertilizer application practices revealed that some practices adopted by indigenous smallholder farmers in some districts resulted in higher maize grain yields compared to those from demonstration trials. These results provide clear signals for in-depth research and collaboration with indigenous farmers for better yield output.
In addition, the study identified, in five districts, researchers' trials that produced increased maize yields that were recommended for adoption in these districts. With the hope to enhance food security in Ghana, smallholder farmers in Zabzugu, Kumbugu, Nanumba South, Yendi and Gushegu could increase maize grain yields by 36% based on adopting the recommended practice by ISFM researchers. However, not all yield increment may be profitable to the smallholder farmer considering the net profit of his/her own practice and that of the proposed strategy as revealed through this study. The study therefore recommends that farmer/researcher collaboration should be strengthened in order to promote

Conflicts of Interest
The author declares no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this paper.