Managing the Urban Environment of Bangkok, Thailand

This article brings the contemporary thinking and practice of Urban Environmental Management (UEM) to the solution of current environmental problems in Bangkok, Thailand. With a fast-growing population of 17 million, Bangkok is the political, economic and commercial capital, as well as the largest city, of Thailand. It is also one of the most important and polluted cities in Southeast Asia. Such cities face more immediate problems than those in the developed world and have fewer resources to deal with them. The article first considers the context of Bangkok, and then reviews issues of poverty alleviation, industry, transportation, energy, water, sewage and sanitation, and finance. Finally, it proposes a 5-year plan to help alleviate the urban environmental problems of this fascinating city utilizing a real-world database and a limited budget.


Introduction
Urban Environmental Management (UEM) has been receiving increasing attention since 1970 in both developed countries, where it has emerged as a subject of academic research and professional interest, and in developing countries, where it has become increasingly an area of donor concern as well. As a field, it is more like planning or engineering rather than geography, economics or sociology; and it represents an integrated view of environmental problems at city, and increasingly, regional level. Such problems are multi-sectoral (e.g., manufacturing, services, household, etc.), multi-system (e.g., water supply, sanitation, transport, etc.), multi-level (central, regional, local and community) and multi-actor (e.g., government, NGO, CBO and private). They require solutions of enormous complexity, and those professionals who coordinate the planning, implementation and management of the process must be able to communicate with specialists from many disciplines and professions (e.g., biology, chemistry, engineering, city planning, public administration, social sciences and law) (Edelman, Schuster, & Said, 2017).
This article focuses on the practice of Urban Environmental Management in developing countries which face more immediate problems than the developed world and have fewer resources to cope with them in a comprehensive manner. The current study, then, is the report of a graduate-studio that took place at the School of Planning, College of Design, Architecture, Art and Planning, University of Cincinnati, USA from August through December 2021. The objective of the studio was to prepare students to work overseas in data-poor environments as professional consulting planners. Several lectures were given to set the framework of the mixed class of seventeen domestic and international students to operate in seven collaborative sector-level teams (Poverty Alleviation, Industry, Transportation, Energy, Water, Sewage and Sanitation, and Finance) preparing a 5-year Environmental Plan for Bangkok, Thailand utilizing a real-world database and a limited budget (Edelman, 2022).
Bangkok is the political, economic and commercial capital, as well as the largest city, of Thailand. It is located on the delta of the Chao Phraya River, about 25 miles (40 km) from the Gulf of Thailand. It was formerly divided into two municipalities-Krung Thep on the east bank and Thon Buri on the westconnected by several bridges. In 1971, the two were united as a city-province with a single municipal government. In 1972, the city and the two surrounding provinces were merged into one province, called Krung Thep Maha Nakhon (Bangkok Metropolis) governed by the Bangkok Metropolitan Administration or BMA (Wikipedia, n.d.) (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bangkok). The metropolis is a bustling, crowded city, with temples, factories, shops and homes juxtaposed along its roads and canals. While it is also a major tourist destination, noted for fabulous cultural attractions and nightlife with a flourishing sex trade, it has severe environmental problems, which include air pollution from vehicle emissions, water pollution from organic and factory wastes, water scarcity, and hazardous waste disposal.
Furthermore, Bangkok's rapid growth coupled with little urban planning has resulted in a haphazard cityscape and inadequate infrastructure. Despite an extensive expressway network, an inadequate road network and substantial private car usage have led to chronic and crippling traffic congestion, which caused severe air pollution in the 1990s. The city has since turned to public transport in an attempt to solve the problem, operating five rapid transit lines and building other public transit, but congestion still remains a widespread issue in that limited space, a persistent increase in the number of vehicles, inconsistent traffic flow, and uncertain travel time are all dominant factors of daily life in Bangkok. Bangkok also faces long-term environmental threats such as sea level rise due to climate change and subsidence, the latter of which is a major concern (Wikipedia, n.d.) (http://www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bangkok).

Poverty Alleviation
In Thailand, the effects of the economy have drastically changed the way of life for all of those who reside there. The steady reduction of poverty in the country from the 1960s until 1997 was primarily gained through economic growth led by industrialization, the emergence of export growth and increased foreign investment. This led Thailand to create high interest and fixed currency exchange rates to continue to attract outside investors and their "hot" money. This kind of money is frequently transferred between financial institutions to obtain the most capital gain, and this foreign investment and potential for profits piqued the interest of countries such as the United States. This sudden rush of money to and investment in Thailand created a boom for the economy, but soon that all came crashing down. With the appreciation of the US dollar, hot money flowed into the US economy. This action hurt export growth and, in turn, panicked foreign investors. The withdrawal created a massive shift in foreign currencies, especially in Asia. With the depletion of their own foreign currency, the Thai baht was forced to float (World Bank Group, 2020).
The effect of these currency movements was the Asian Financial Crisis. This economic decline affected a multitude of Asian countries. Thailand, though, had its exchange rates plummet, and the Thai currency (baht) lost much of its value.
Before the crisis, the baht had an exchange rate of 1 dollar = 25 baht. After the crash, however, one dollar was the equivalent of 54 baht. Such a drastic drop in value caused the poverty rate to increase to 65% after the crash and brought about a time of hardship (Ibid.).
Between 2015 and 2018, the poverty rate fluctuated. In 2015, the poverty rate was 7.2% (5.2 million), and, approaching 2018, the rate rose to 9.8% (6.8 million) (https://www.macrotrends.net/countries/THA/thailand/poverty-rate, Thailand Poverty Rate 1981). The amount of people living below the poverty line before 2018 decreased drastically due to Thailand's economic growth and government aid programs. However, an economic slowdown, technological problems, and a trade war resulted in a considerable number of people residing below the poverty line once again. This widespread poverty increase spread over the entirety of Thailand, and 61 out of 77 provinces were thrown into impoverished situations (Limited, 2020 Unlike other countries, there is not a political debate about the effects of the vaccine, but rather a desire from the public to become fully vaccinated and return to normality. There is an overwhelming abundance of the Chinese produced and manufactured Sinovac vaccine, which has been found not to be the most effective vaccine as it prevented symptomatic disease in only 51% of individuals, although it prevented severe Covid-19 and hospitalizations in 100% of the studied population (WHO, 2021).
The government is starting to increase doses of the AstraZeneca vaccine, which is produced by a company owned by the country's king. As of November 2021, AstraZeneca Plc. has given an additional 10.5 million doses of the vaccine to Thailand. This will allow for the factories in Thailand to no longer put on hold their additional exports (Reuters, 2021b These non-governmental organizations then gave way to civil society organizations in the 1990s due to the economic growth Thailand was experiencing. These Civil Society Organizations grew to meet the many needs of the poor who weren't located in the city center (Ibid.).
In order to expand government social and economic safety nets to include everyone, a 4-phase plan can be implemented (Edelman, 2022).  Phase 1: As previously mentioned, the first step in extending a government safety net starts with registering those living in slums on government websites, so every person is accounted for by the government.  Phase 2: Here, labor protection is extended to those who are in the informal sector and don't have a contractual obligation to a company. This can be broken down into further sub phases: ○ Phase 2.2: Subcontracted workers. ○ Phase 2.3: Self-employed/small businesses. ○ Phase 2.4: Daily hires.
 Phase 3: Informal and contracted hires must have a legal system and contractual paperwork that considers them as working members of society so government health policies can then apply to them. Nevertheless, as cities adapt to the new realities that they are faced with, one constant that is present is the need for continued economic growth. This is also true for Bangkok in that continued economic expansion offers a means of relative improvement for the overall general economy. It also offers opportunities for the economic advancement of citizens who live in and reside around Khlong Toey. Nevertheless, similar to other communities, there are costs associated with new development, with one of them being the gentrification of a community due to the new development. With the process in its current form, substantial amounts of housing units will be vacated and require residents to find alternative housing opportunities or take cash compensation to move elsewhere (Chandran, 2021).
While economic growth must continue for an urban environment to succeed and grow, it must work in tandem with the protection of the existing residents' interests in the community.

Industry
Bangkok is the location of the main port of Thailand, making it an integral part of the economy of the country. Wholesale and retail trade is the largest sector in Bangkok's economy, accounting for 24% of Bangkok's gross provincial product.
It is followed by manufacturing (14.3%); real estate, renting and business activities (12.4%); transport and communications (11%); and financial intermediation (11.1%). Tourism is also a major source of revenue in Bangkok (The World Bank, n.d.).
Bangkok alone accounts for 48.4% of Thailand's service sector, which in turn constitutes 49% of Thailand's GDP (Ministry of Information and Communication Technology, 2017). The service sector is defined as anything having to do with retail trade, tourism, education, social services, government, etc. Bangkok's service sector accounts for roughly half of the 2.3 million establishments in Thailand, as of 2012. This means that there are approximately 480,000 establishments in Bangkok devoted to the service industry (Ibid.). As of 2012 roughly 1.7 million people were employed in the service industry in Bangkok.
The manufacturing industry in Bangkok is made up of the production of building materials, food processing, textiles, the assembly of electronic equipment, and automotive assembly (Ibid.). Thailand's textile industry consists of over 2000 businesses, most of which are in or around Bangkok (Mordor Intelligence, 2021). The country is known all over the world for its silk production. It is also doing well in eco-friendly dyeing and printing services. The textile industry employs over 200,000 people. Overall, the manufacturing industry in Bangkok is a crucial part of Thailand's economy.
In the last 40 years, Thailand has made great strides in economic development, becoming an upper middle-income country. According to the World Bank, Thailand's economy grew at an average yearly rate of 7.5% from 1960 to 1996. The economy grew at a rate of 5% per year from 1999 to 2005 after the Asian Financial Crisis. Millions of new jobs were created from this economic growth. Even more recently, economic growth has slowed from 4.2% in 2018 to 2.4% in 2019.
The root cause of slowing economic growth was less demand for exports due to The Covid-19 pandemic has only exacerbated the economic growth problems of Thailand. Economic growth went down 6.1% in 2020 due to changes in trade and tourism, supply chain issues, and less domestic consumption.
The World Bank says that the export of goods has provided substantial support to the economy, driven by recovering global demand for automotive parts, electronics, machinery, and agricultural products. The recovery is expected to ramp up in 2022, with the annual GDP growth rate forecasted to rise 5.1% depending on solid progress on Thai vaccination rates, an improvement in the global trajectory of Covid-19 good enough to allow international tourism to recover somewhat, and the Covid fiscal response package (World Bank Group, 2021).
Recognizing the problem, policymakers in Thailand decided it was necessary to digitize Thailand in order to propel the country to the next level. Thailand 4.0 refers to a method to generate a transformation from primarily machine manufacturing to digital manufacturing (Puriwat & Tripopsakul, 2020).
To aid in implementing the Thailand 4.0 policy, policies focus on the semiconductor and automotive production industries within this plan.

Energy
Well over 15 million people live and work in Bangkok (Pakarnseree, 2018). As the capital of Thailand and centrally located, Bangkok is the heart of the country's industry, commerce, manufacturing, construction, and economy (Arifwidodo & Chandrasiri, 2015). These factors have led to rapid industrialization and urbanization due to the influx of people coming to the capital city. The people of Bangkok place a major significance on entertainment. The city has a high concentration of recreational establishments, neon lighting, and flashy displays. This increases energy consumption and pollution. Energy efficiency is a major concern that needs to be addressed. More sustainable housing and adaptations to the planning of the city can help to mitigate Bangkok's energy needs (Ibid.  (Arifwidodo & Chandrasiri, 2015).
In order for a country to develop and flourish, it requires adequate energy resources. Thailand has scarce conventional energy resources; therefore, it looks to imports as an alternative. Thailand as a whole requires energy to supply and meet its domestic demand, which is at odds with its population growth, urban growth and economic expansion (Ministry of Energy, 2015). Energy utilization climbs every year with a large portion consisting of imported energy. Since 1995, the overall import of commercial energy has accounted for over 50% of the combined supply. It is also foreseen to grow since nonrenewable resources such as gas and oil reserves are being depleted at alarming rates. Therefore, since the majority of energy consumption and imports are fossil-based, an issue arises with environmental protection because there is a surge of greenhouse gas emis- Another solution is the creation of more waste-to-energy plants in Bangkok.
Waste-to-energy plants focus on burning municipal solid waste to produce steam that is used for the production of electricity, which is fed to the power grid, and heat. This solution not only produces renewable energy, but also helps dispose of Bangkok's overflowing waste by repurposing much of the waste currently sitting on the streets of the city.
The high costs of creating plants like this one are not the only potential drawback of this solution. A large factor in whether or not the process will work as imagined is the state of the waste being incinerated. There needs to be a certain level of consistency and quality that is hard to receive when it is coming from plan to benefit Bangkok. The waste-to-energy method, although a viable option and useful in the sense that it also starts to tackle a waste issue in Bangkok, was too costly and came with too many outside factors that may hinder the process.
The extra steps needed to educate the general public on proper waste disposal methods and the need to motivate an entire population to do so make this a less desirable option. Hydropower, on the other hand, also proves itself a viable option, but comes with environmental concerns regarding the amount of carbon dioxide and methane that would be released. Hydropower also comes with concerns regarding water levels as it runs the risk of starting droughts, as well as harming the fish and other life existing in the bodies of water in which these plants are located (Conserve Energy Future http://www.conserve-energy-future.com).
Ultimately solar power stands out as the most logical as it does not rely on external factors such as waste disposal, education, and water levels, as well as requiring lower costs than the other options studied.

Transportation
What was once a quiet and relatively small community has grown to be the Citizens are influenced by the quality of the environment they live in on a daily basis. A major problem with transportation is the fact that vehicles are the main source of air pollutants. With more automobiles than ever, according to WHO, Bangkok's air pollution is more than double the amount that is recommended or expected (IQAir, 2021). In 2020, Thailand was ranked 34 th in the world for poor air quality. Although people can still get around and carry on with their daily activities, the city has consistently stayed near the top of the list of cities with polluted air. Although some measures have been taken to improve this situation, more action needs to be taken. More than just day-to-day life has been impacted for the citizens of Bangkok by problems of air pollution and congestion.
Bangkok's pollution has also resulted in roughly 8000 deaths and US$3,100,000,000 of damage to the economy in 2021 alone. Public health and the overall quality of life have been impacted tremendously by transportation as well. The more that the city's inhabitants can make the environment in which they live in more ecofriendly, the closer Bangkok will be to solving its overall transit problems.
Congestion levels are closely related to pollution levels, and air pollution and congestion within Bangkok remain extreme problems that need continual attention. Congestion in this city has started to improve slowly in recent years but remains a problem that has a long way to go before it will be solved as well. In- Bangkok has been working to eliminate the issues of air pollution and congestion in transportation in numerous ways over the past few years, including a high-speed rail project, The Gold Line, Bang Sue Grand Station and electric vehicles. As Thailand moves in a more transportation-friendly direction, plans to not only build a third international airport, but also make a switch from the Euro IV to Euro V petrol standard by 2023 are in the works.

Sewage and Sanitation
With 2604 km of canals weaving through the city (Wancharoen, 2019), the Gulf of Thailand to the southwest border, and a densely populated cityscape, Bangkok  The rising rates of wastewater generated and its uncontrolled disposal have resulted in the contamination of rivers and the deterioration of the quality of groundwater with salinity, coliform bacteria, and other organic compounds, which both serve as water sources to some households in Bangkok as well as other surrounding communities (Polprasert, 2007).
This high population and busy tourist culture produce significant solid waste.
In 2020 Waste production declined overall during the Covid-19 pandemic, resulting in fewer total tons collected from 2019 to 2020. Infectious waste decreased by 11.65% during the height of the pandemic in February-May 2020 compared to 2019 due to fewer residents seeking medical care outside of Covid-19 complications (Ibid.). MSW declined by 1045 tons per day compared to 2019 due to significantly fewer tourists and many unregistered residents moving back to their hometowns outside of Bangkok. Plastic waste, however, notably increased as residents used more takeout containers and home deliveries as a result of Covid-19 prevention measures. In April of 2020, the proportion of plastic waste increased to 36.6% of the total waste, a 16.59% increase from 2019. This proportion fell by 15% after the relaxation of Covid prevention measures but remained notably higher than 2019 levels. Food waste remained the highest proportion of MSW in 2020, totaling 45.41% (The Department of Environment, 2021). Solid waste collection in Bangkok involves stakeholders from the formal public and private sectors, as well as an essential contribution from the informal sector. The Department of the Environment of the BMA is the primary public entity in charge of solid waste collection.
The informal sector plays an essential role in Bangkok's waste management. Only 8% of the population separates their waste, and there is no formal recycling system (Archer & Adelina, 2021). All waste separation and recycling are sorted by informal waste collectors and sold to waste dealers, commonly referred to as junk shops. BMA garbage collectors serve as formal/informal workers hired by the BMA, but they also sort the waste they collect from households and sell valuable recyclables to waste dealers for an extra 150 -200 baht in profit (Johnson & Trang, 2019).
The population of Bangkok is estimated to grow rapidly by 2050, as would the growth of the wastewater that would be generated. An increasing population would lead to a significant rise in the volume of wastewater as well as the demand for quality water. A needs assessment conducted revealed that the current treatment capacity in Bangkok is stagnating and, as a result, contributes to the poor management of wastewater generated. In this respect, it is crucial to address the capacity and coverage needs of the city of Bangkok to meet the rising rate of wastewater generation. Feasibility studies are required to determine the viability and efficiency of projects to inform operational, technical, legal, and resource allocation decisions. In the final year of the plan period, a feasibility study would be conducted to assess the current and future situations of wastewater generation and management in Bangkok.
The current low source separation rate of 8% in Bangkok results in challenges in the Bangkok MSW stream (Archer & Adelina, 2021). Low waste separation rates lead to unnecessary disposal costs and environmental pollution (Sukholthaman & Sharp, 2016). Furthermore, a lack of source separation contaminates valuable recyclables that can otherwise be kept out of the waste stream and generate income for informal waste collectors who sell them to waste dealers (Nguyen & Nitivattananon, 2019).
Given the challenges that result from the lack of waste separation and the benefits that result from it for the environment, the BMA's spending, and the increase in informal waste collector income, a city-wide source separation program is needed. Furthermore, Thailand is in the top five countries for marine plastic pollution (WOIMA Corporation, 2021) and has named plastic reduction as a priority in its 3R strategy and Roadmap on Plastic Waste Management (2018-2030) (The Department of Environment, Bangkok Metropolitan Adminis-tration, 2021).
Finally, there are numerous businesses developing plastic alternatives (Stone, 2018). A particularly promising option for Bangkok is packaging made from sea- weed. An Indonesian company called Evoware uses locally produced seaweed to create biodegradable packaging at lower costs than plastic (Ibid.). A similar business model or other plastic alternatives could be developed in Bangkok. Local businesses developing alternative packaging to plastics would have the dual benefit of reducing plastic waste and providing employment directly through the business and through work in seaweed agriculture.

Water
In contrast to a lot of cities, Bangkok did not initially have paved roads and walkways, and the. Main means of transportation were waterways. "The river, (Chao Phraya), helped the city of Ayutthaya become an international trading hub, and the country started to build relationships with the merchants from around the world who visited (Iverson, 2017)." Most of these merchants came from China, Spain, the Netherlands and France. The waterways in Bangkok have been the heart of Bangkok's needs and history. Bangkok's earliest settlers chose to settle here because of its location. The river made the land fertile for farming and it was filled with fish. Due to this, Bangkok expanded into what it is today, with "more than 50,000 people still [using] its ferries every day", (Bangkok River) with the Chao Phraya River being the most important waterway (Ibid.).
Bangkok is a port city located in the north of the Gulf of Thailand. Water is a huge part of what makes Bangkok the bustling and successful city it is today. The location of the city is ideal for trade and transportation, being on the Gulf of Thailand and located on a major river, the Chao Phraya. The river flows south into the Gulf of Thailand and is over 225 miles long. The canals, or khlongs, use the river as a source of water. The river is very important in the transportation of goods such as teak and rice.
The primary source of drinking water comes from surface and ground water.
The water in Bangkok is cleaned and purified in plants and, in theory, should be safe to drink. The problem comes when it leaves the treatment plants and goes into aging lead water pipes. This then affects the quality of the tap water and causes a strong chlorine smell. It is recommended for citizens and tourists to drink only from bottled water. The basin of the Chao Phraya is the largest in Thailand, it drains roughly 30% of the country. The water has been polluted and is no longer drinkable for many reasons. Chemicals used in farming and agriculture, industrial waste, and untreated sewage flow are just a few factors that pollute the waterways of Bangkok (Thelwell, 2019).
For years the canals have been used as a source for drainage, and because of that they are now filled with wastewater. A Greenpeace study shows high levels of toxic chemicals in the canals. There is evidence of heavy metals, hormone disrupting chemicals, and human carcinogens in the water. The wildlife is dying, and the fish caught must be cleaned and tested for disease before being cooked (Ibid.).
Bangkok is very exposed to the elements with no natural protection. The city's location is at a perfect spot for flooding. It is located close to the Gulf of Thailand and is on top of the Chao Phraya River. The sinking of the city is happening fast due to the marshy land and the weight of the urbanization along with the uncontrolled use of groundwater. Bangkok is slowly sinking at a steady rate of 10 cm annually. Due to raising seas levels and climate change some experts say that Bangkok is at risk of sinking in 15 -20 years (The ASEAN Post Team, 2019).  (Adarsh, 2021). Due to this, it is proposed here to replace all the lead piping in Bangkok with PVC to eliminate consumers' risk of illness and contamination. Using PVC piping instead of lead is better for the environment as well.
All the districts in Bangkok, except Pathumthani, Samutprakarn, and Nonthsburi, contain lead piping. The challenge is to replace these lead pipes with PVC piping efficiently without disrupting the history, community, or tourism within the city. Replacing all the lead pipes will not just cost a lot, but it will also take a long time. One must consider and evaluate all districts and distinguish which ones should go first and how long each district would take. As a result, a district that has elements found throughout Bangkok has been chosen for the pilot study to determine the unknowns of replacing piping and help to develop a system to do so.

Finance
The City of Bangkok is the thriving economic and commercial hub of Thailand.
Over the 20 th century, Thailand's capital has developed to become a central trade and manufacturing hub for the country. The highly developed system of canals, Aside from the Asian Financial Crisis in the 1990s and the current economic crisis caused by the pandemic, Thailand has long had a strong economy favorable to foreign investment and development, and after a thorough review of proposed projects by each sector for the 5-year environmental management period of 2022-2026, the finance group has concluded that all seven sectors will be funded either at full or partial capacity. The team concludes that there will be sufficient funding sources available through both foreign and direct investment, Multilateral Development Bank sources, top donor countries and sovereign/ non-sovereign funds to support implementation of projects proposed by poverty alleviation, transportation, energy, and water sectoral teams. Lastly, the finance team assessed the scale of projects proposed by the sewage/sanitation and industry sectors, advising that these sectors revise the scope of the proposed projects in order to be financially viable in relation to the availability of funding during the 5-year planning period. Therefore, the projects for all seven sectors of this study and presented in this article reflect the analysis of the Finance Team and are projected to be fully funded (World Bank Group, 2021).

Conclusion
The intent of this article was to summarize the results of a project to bring the contemporary thinking and practice of Urban Environmental Management to the solution of real problems in Bangkok, Thailand, a large cosmopolitan Southeast Asian metropolis best known outside of the region as a fascinating city for tourists with ornate shrines, a vibrant street life, and fabulous food. The boatfilled Chao Phraya River feeds its network of canals, flowing past the Rattanakosin royal district, home to the opulent Grand Palace and its sacred Wat Phra Kaew Temple. Nearby is Wat Pho Temple with an enormous reclining Buddha and, on the opposite shore, Wat Arun Temple with its steep steps and Khmer-style spire (https://www.google.com/search/Bangkok). Despite its breathtaking sites, it is a city plagued by numerous serious environmental problems.
The objective was to replicate as much as possible the conditions under which a team of expatriate consultants would operate in this context so that a class of graduate urban and regional planning students could develop ideas and procedures that fit the circumstances they would likely confront as professional planners working on such projects in developing countries for international development banks, multilateral donors in the United Nations system, as well as the  (Edelman, 2020). Consulting firms operating internationally on projects for these institutions, agencies and countries come not only from the donor countries of the United States, Australia and Europe, but increasingly from countries such as Brazil, India, China and Korea as well, and the staffs of experts they provide often come from a number of the countries named (Edelman, 2014;Edelman, 2018).
In this working environment, it was instructive for the students to formulate a 5-year plan of solutions to the environmental problems and issues they faced rather than be told how to deal with them (Edelman, 2021). This expanded their analytical skills and taught them how to utilize the limited knowledge and resources available to come up with implementable solutions for the benefit of the people of Bangkok. They learned that such skills are transferable to other projects, and they gained a greater appreciation of the skill set that they are developing as planners (Edelman, 2016). Bringing the reality of development to the classroom and asking students to confront it gives them an appreciation of professional practice that the study of theory alone does not (Edelman, 2015). Consequently, the project summarized here has attempted not only to expand the education of graduate students, but also to provide a meaningful contribution to planning pedagogy (Edelman, 2019).

Conflicts of Interest
The author declares no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this paper.