Volcanism and Earthquakes —Polemical Notes on Mantle Plumes

The article presents new views on volcanism and earthquakes. The problem of the scientific basis for the interpretation of geotectonic theories was dis-cussed. The interpretation of the mantle plume phenomenon according to the theory of expansion and the theory of primal forces of nature is presented. The heat source in the Earth’s core is thermonuclear reactions. The cause of earthquakes is not collisions of lithospheric plates, but plasma eruptions. The stresses in the rock mass, causing global fractures, arise due to the increase in the size of nuclides in the process of plasma recombination. The oldest basalts that make up the oceanic plates remain invariably along the shores of continents. The widespread view of the subduction of lithospheric plates and vertical convection cells of rock matter should be regarded as a scientific fic-tion.

The journal Nature Reviews Earth & Environment has published the article "Mantle plumes and their role in Earth processes" (Koppers et al., 2021). The authors are interested in the phenomenon of hot spots in the Earth's mantle, which, according to the theory of plate tectonics, treat as a closed system, not related to the Earth's core. The confrontation of the hypotheses concerning volcanism and earthquakes with the geophysical interpretation of these phenomena shows numerous inconsistencies and even contradictions with reality. The view on subduction of assessment plates and remelting rocks in convection cells is not confirmed either in models of rock mass mechanics or in geochronological analyzes.  The abundance of publications on mantle plumes indicates numerous attempts to explain the emerging contradictions rather than reports confirming the phenomenon of subduction. Only the image of the global geothermal stream developed in the 1990s (Pollack et al., 1993). The total heat flux of the Earth is approx. 3.8 × 10 13 W, which corresponds to an average flux density of 70 mW•m −2 . On continents, the average geothermal flux density is 56 mW•m −2 , while in the ocean rift zone it increases to 350 mW•m −2 (Figure 3).
According to the theory of plate tectonics, phenomena of geological activity such as earthquakes, volcanoes, and ocean trenches are the result of plate collisions. The basis of the theory of plate tectonics is the assumption that tectonic plates slide along the liquid asthenosphere, which causes collision situations.

Criticism of the Rock Cycle Hypothesis and Lithospheric Plate Subduction
The fire plume hypothesis appeared along with the plate tectonics theory to fill the gap in this theory. The plate tectonics theory proposed only two types of volcanism, in the ocean fracture zone and in the plate-sump zone. A chain of islands such as Hawaii has become an example of a mantle plume hot spot. In the process of hypothetical subduction, the rocks heat up and as magma return to the eruption zone, creating a so-called rock cycle. The plate tectonics theory explains volcanic activity in the ocean rift zone and in the plate subduction zone by stresses caused by convection currents in the asthenosphere. In the subduction zone, convective currents change their direction to the descending one, why? If the convection current in the rift zone spreads horizontally in the asthenosphere, it cannot simultaneously cause the rift of the ocean plate. If the magma in the rift zone forms an ocean plate, the same magma cannot remain liquid and be subject to downdraft! Mantle plumes are regarded as "deflected by large-scale mantle flow" mobile hotspots. The assumption of the probability of mobility of mantle plumes excludes the connection of this phenomenon with the Figure 3. Geothermal flux density (Pollack et al., 1993) https://www.open.edu/openlearn/nature-environment/environmental-studies/understan ding-deep-geothermal-energy/content-section-1. There are generally two geothermal zones: 1) Cool zone of continental plates; 2) Warm zone of oceanic plate.
A. Pawuła Journal of Geoscience and Environment Protection heat source in the Earth's core. The sequence of such hot spots can be explained by a crack and the formation of an eruption rift. Obvious contradictions resulting from the attempt to reconcile the horizontal transport pattern of rock matter as suggested by the theory of plate tectonics are planned to be clarified in an extended program of geochemical, isotopic and geochronological studies. According to the criteria of rock mass mechanics and geochronological analyzes, it results that convective cells of rock matter do not exist and the subduction of lithospheric plates is fiction. There are no such forces that would force matter to circulate and melt old rocks. The evidence that basalt magma is freshly formed matter is the result of geochronological analyzes. At the exflow site, the basalt lava has a zero age (Figure 3). Confirmation of the juvenility of this magma is its homogeneous and unchanging mineral composition. A comparison of the age of the oldest recordings at the edges of continents with the age of the appearance of the ocean rift indicates that the speed of continental retreat is the same as the speed of ocean plate growth, so these speeds are balanced. The Middle Jurassic basalts that started the formation of the oceanic plate are still in the same place and have not pressed an inch under the continental plate. In the schematic diagram of the plate tectonics theory, there is no explanation for volcanism in the middle of the continents, and therefore also for hot spots, which are a signal of a waking volcano.

The Complex Nature of Geological Processes
In order to explain the phenomenon of volcanism inside the continents, seismological studies of the volcanoes of the Central Massif in France were undertaken. It was found that continental volcanoes are not related to plate subduction and convection cells, on the contrary, they are stationary and their roots reach the D zone ( Figure 4).
The expansion theory states that the radius of the Earth is growing and those magmatic intrusions are formed in the mantle as a result of processes taking place in the Earth's core (Terez et al., 2013). The hot spots have their heat source in the Earth's core ( Figure 5). The search for vertical convective cells of rock matter has no physical justification. The logical conclusion was the postulate of magma formation in the D zone, which was formulated in 2000 at a scientific meeting of the Polish Geological Society (Pawuła, 2000).
The expansion theory takes into account the fact that the Earth is a planet and its history is part of the evolution of the solar system. The theory of the expansion of the Earth is related to the logic of the theory of primal forces of nature, which is expressed in the evolution of the planetary sequence (Pawuła, 2021a). The processes taking place in this evolutionary sequence of the Earth are gravitational accretion causing the increase in mass and temperature increase of the globe, ionization of matter and the formation of low-temperature plasma, then the spontaneous formation of a thermonuclear reactor and the production of hot plasma, and finally the recombination of hot plasma and the formation of basalt magma (Pawuła, 2021b).   (Guillemot, 1995).
The appearance of basalt magma is a special phenomenon related to the expansion of the Earth. The creation of basalt magma is a complex process that requires an explanation of the apparent paradox-the operation of a thermonuclear georector without the expansion of the globe and the expansion of the Earth without increasing its mass.   In conditions of high temperature of the plasma of the thermonuclear georeactor, when the plasma pressure exceeds the gravitational pressure and magnetic attraction forces, the plasma spouts outside the core, into the D zone privileged zones as indicated by ocean rifts. In the D zone, in a mixture of free ions and electrons, the formation of elements takes place. The recombination process consists of catching electrons and placing them in specific orbits. The process of creating elements is expressed by changing the electromagnetic properties and the structure of matter particles. In the recombination process, the volume of elements increases. The formation of elements is manifested by an increase in the volume of matter without changing the mass. The mass of electrons is negligibly small in relation to the mass of ions (Pawuła, 2021c).
In the case of a proton having a diameter, a hydrogen atom is formed with a diameter. In order to imagine the phenomenon of an increase in the volume of a matter particle by 10 15 times, it is necessary to recall the molecular forces of freezing water (Figure 8).
Nuclide recombination: Transformation of a nuclide, a positively charged ion, into an electrically neutral element The material that is formed in the recombination process, at a depth of 2900 km, has a temperature of 3000 K (3273˚C) (Figure 9). Basalt magma that forms on the surface has a temperature of 1250˚C and is a mixture of all the elements. The creation of basalt magma causes the emergence of an expansion force, which is the driving force behind stresses in the earth's crust, the formation of igneous intrusions and post-communal processes. Igneous intrusion which we call fire plumes is formed.     You should be aware of the forces that cause the globe to rupture, to eject magma from a depth of about 3000 kilometers, and in some cases to explode pyroclastic materials to a height of more than 50 kilometers ( Figure 12). The pressure of the expanding magma is the cause of strong seismic shocks. This situation can be explained by the example of catastrophic seismic shocks in the center of the continents (Figure 13). As a result of the plasma ejection, a batolite of basalt magma is formed, the volume of which rapidly increases ( Figure  14).
Volcanic eruption is caused by magma pressure, and under certain conditions, igneous gases explode. This has to do with the mineral composition and temperature of the magma. Primary basalt lava in the exuberant volcanoes of Hawaii has a temperature in the range of 1100˚C -1250˚C, it is liquid and rich in dark minerals. In explosive volcanoes, lava has a rhyolite mineral composition, is enriched with silica and has a lower temperature, in the range of 750˚C -900˚C.
One of the arguments for the origin of basalt magma from the hot plasma of the Earth's core is the elemental composition of magma (Figure 6), similar to the composition of the plasma. Seismic shocks are the result of the recobination of hot plasma and igneous gases. The difference is the hydrogen that is released from the magma. The shock distribution images are characteristic, different for weak tremors with magnitude M < 5 M (map a) ( Figure 15) and for strong tremors, magnitude > 7 M (map b) (Figure 16).
Map a) M < 5 earthquakes 1) Deep seismic tremors in the region of oceanic rifts and tectonic ditches, caused by the plasma recombination process and the formation of basalt magma. The high magma temperature maintains the state of the mixture without gas evolution. Basalt magma is liquid and degasses at the earth's surface (exudative volcano).  (Orton, 1996) https://niezbednikgeografa.files.wordpress.com/2020/03/18_wuklany.pdf.   2) Shallow shocks caused by compressive stresses are in the earth's crust. In place of protons, hydrogen atoms appear, the volume of which is 10 15 times greater than that of the proton. Describing the phenomenon of recombination, we can say that the change in the electric charge of a matter particle caused the volume of this particle to increase so enormously.
The plasma recombination process causes a sharp increase in pressure, the appearance of tectonic stresses, seismic shocks and volcanic eruptions. The resulting elements form basalt magma, the characteristic feature of which is the stability of the chemical composition and a stable concentration of uranium at

Conclusions
In summary, the cause of geological activity, volcanism, and earthquakes is not the collision of continental plates, but the eruption of plasma from the Earth's core and the recombination of nuclides in zone D, the formation of elements takes place. The recombination process, which is expressed in a sharp increase in the size of matter particles, takes place without changing the mass. The expansion of the Earth, which is manifested in the increase of basalt magma in the mantle and ocean plates, takes place without the increase in the mass of the globe. This is confirmed by the fact that a thermonuclear georeactor has been operating for several billion years without the phenomenon of expansion. The main cause of volcanism and earthquakes is the process of creating elements in the Earth's core. The newly formed elements form basalt magma which expands without weight gain. The mantle plumes are fed with hot magma from the Earth's core. On the other hand, a constant increase in the mass of the Earth exists within the planetary evolutionary cycle, which results from the action of the primal forces of nature.
The analysis of earthquake distribution shows that the magnitude of the earthquakes depends on the temperature of the Niggly phase, the type of magma, and the degree of degassing of the magma. Under conditions of the continuous eruption of hot and liquid basaltic magma, earthquakes are frequent but weak. As the magma cools down, the mineral composition is differentiated and igneous gases are released. Hydrogen accumulates in gas traps and reacts with other elements. There is, among others, flammable methane. Volcanic eruptions and earthquakes are then irregular, separated by quiet but violent periods.
Igneous solutions exert pressure on the rocks of the mantle and the earth's crust, creating mineral and natural gas deposits. Igneous methane, next to deposits of natural gas and methane hydrates, accumulates in tectonic fissures and is the cause of volcanic explosions.

Conflicts of Interest
The author declares no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this paper.