Generation, Characterization and Management Practices of Household Solid Wastes in Cowfield, Paynesville City, Liberia

The success of any waste management system requires accurate and up-to-date data on quantity, composition of waste. Waste generation data from household are needed to address issues relating to municipal solid wastes such as management method, performance improvement, policy, regional and local planning, administrative, cost accounting, design and operation of landfill fa-cilities and environmental quality. This study was conducted to provide em-pirical data on generation rates, quantity and composition, management practices, challenges and strategies from urban household. Waste collection, weighing, questionnaires survey and field observation were methods used during the study. Waste was collected and weighed from 60 households using multi-stage sampling technique for seven days. Questionnaires were analyzed using Statistical Package for Social Sciences version 20 and Excel. A total of 1125.2 kg of waste was recorded. The average household waste generation was 3 kg per day with per capita generation rate of 0.41 kg/cap/day. The compositional analysis showed that Organic (53%), Plastic (11%), Textile (6%), Metal (2%), Glass (1%), Paper and Cardboard 4%


Introduction
The growth of the human population has led to increased consumption of natural resources. Simultaneously, households have been one of the major sources of waste generation. There is always high utilization of resources by households in urban, peri-urban and rural centers including energy, water, food and raw materials (The Re-Issued Amendment, 2005). Municipal solid waste stream at household level has taken a new dimension than ever as it is now in developed and developing countries (Ogedengbe & Oyedele, 2006). Economic growth, urbanization and change in consumption behavior coupled with population increase are immensely contributing to this new dimension (Ogedengbe & Oyedele, 2006;Afroz et al., 2011;Aguilar-Virgen et al., 2010;Bamgboye & Ojolo, 2004;UNEP, 2007;Premakumara, 2011). There is single method for waste management. The management practices may vary according to volumes and types of the wastes, national policy as well as the local conditions of a place (Wilson, 2010). In many countries, like Liberia, the local municipality is mainly responsible for Municipal Solid Waste Management services (Premakumara, 2011;Wilson, 2010;Shivashankara & Rekha, 2005). High waste generation, improper waste management system and lack of policy and financial supports have outpowered many municipalities in developing countries to manage waste properly (UNEP, 2007;Wilson, 2010;Hayal et al., 2014;Hoornweg & Bhada-Tata, 2012).
Municipal Household Solid waste is one of the cores of urban environmental problems facing Liberia and other developing nations. Many studies have linked poor waste management as a significant threat to public health, water resources, climate, property value and quality environment (Ogedengbe & Oyedele, 2006;Dorliae, 2012;Bobeck, 2010;Henry et al., 2006). Moreover, the lack of sanitary landfill and uncontrolled decomposition of organic wastes is becoming serious challenge to human health and environment (Bobeck, 2010;De Wilde et al., 2014). Due to their nature and composition, waste emanating from households needs to be constantly researched and monitored. Determining the fractional composition, management practices and challenges faced are germane. Waste characterization is an important integral of any waste management system. It plays a vital role in the treatment, improving performance, policy making and provide the information required for the development of relevant community and national based activities to address waste management issues (The Re-Issued Amendment, 2005;Afroz et al., 2011;Aguilar-Virgen et al., 2010;EPA, 2002;Kumar, 2006). Relevant data and information at household level is required to monitor and control existing waste management systems and to make regulatory, financial, and institutional decisions (EPA, 2002). General and specific in-  (UNEP, 2007;Dorliae, 2012;Pasco Waste & Environmental Consulting, 2012;UNICEF, 2004;WHO, 2003;UNEP, 2005). Generally, waste data available at the national is a combination of all sources such as household, commercial, construction and industrial. It is from this background that this research was conducted to determine the waste generation rates, quantities and composition, management practices, challenges and strategies at the Household level.

Methods
The research used measurement, questionnaires and reconnaissance surveys and field observations as means of data collection. The data were both quantitative and qualitative. The socio-demographic characteristics, management practices, challenges and strategies were obtained through structured questionnaires and field observations. Multistage sampling technique was adopted during the study (Bobeck, 2010;EPA, 2002). Purposive sampling was used in selecting the study area and households were systematically selected in four zones. The fourth house of every count was sampled. The selected households in the communities were assigned number from 1 -60 for identification and analysis purposes.

Survey
A reconnaissance survey was conducted in order to have baseline knowledge of the study area including community consent and entry, number of households, social background, etc. A questionnaire survey was conducted prior to the commencement of the seven days waste collection. This survey was intended to gather information on the socio-economic and demographic characteristics of the households, the total number of occupants, management practices, challenges and strategies.

Wastes Collection and Weighing
Waste was collected, sorted and weighed from a total of 60 households of four zones (A, B, C and D) over a week period. The sample size was dependent on time and research budget. A representative sample size was selected based on (EPA, 2002) waste management characterization guidance. Selected households were issued emptied plastic bag every morning and asked to put in their daily Journal of Geoscience and Environment Protection waste generated. The waste bags were collected by the researcher and five trained research assistants every morning and another plastic was issued. The waste on the first day was discarded as it may contain wastes of previous days. Each bag was weighed and recorded in the data sheet for analysis. Each waste bag was labeled using the profile below:  Day and time of waste collection.
 Assigned house number.
 Block/zone of the household.
 The name of the waste collector.

Materials
The following materials were used: Weighing scales (15 kg Kinlee scale; minimum precision 50 g), Bags for collection and weighing, Disinfectant, reflector jackets, gloves, nose masks, etc., Survey papers, writing boards, and paper and pens and Tricycle.

Data Analysis
Statistical Package for Social Sciences (IBM SPSS Statistics 20) was used for questionnaires analysis. For the compositional analysis, the weighed waste bags of each day were emptied onto a flat plan and reduced to a manageable size using the quadrant technique. The opposite size was selected for analysis. The fractional waste was weighed and the weight of the bucket was subtracted from the total weight. The daily per capita/person generation, the per cap generation rate (kg/cap/day) and the sum of the daily household generation were calculated using standard method (EPA, 2002). Tables, Graphs and Charts were used for data presentation.
This result revealed a high household size compare to the findings of (Oge-

Waste Generation
Waste generation varied with day of the week with a total generated quantity of  (Afroz et al., 2011;Aguilar-Virgen et al., 2010;Bamgboye & Ojolo, 2004). The variation in per capita generations has been attributed to spatial-temporal difference, individual lifestyle, seasonality, level of education, culture, income, urbanization and economic activity (Oberlin, 2011;Premakumara, 2011).

Waste Composition
Household wastes are generally classified into organic and non-organic.  , 2002). As presented in Figure 1, bio-waste was the most generated waste in the community with the highest percent weight of 54% and others had a percent weight of 22%. The high generation of organic wastes is an indication of the household consumption behavior and is likely that many of the household consume food, fruit and green. Most of the organic waste was made of fruits skin, green stems, and leaves with less edible food. Also, it is a residential area that is closed to the Duport Road market and the commercial hub, Red Light Market, of Paynesville where fresh meat, fish, vegetables are always available in these markets at cheaper price then the canned food and residents could prefer fresh greens and fruits over canned food. The potential recyclable materials include paper and cardboard, metal, textiles and glass. Collectively, these components make up 24% of the household waste. Relatively low number of textiles and paper are recovered for recycling. This is either because the waste is not segregated during generation or these materials can easily be affected by ash, organic and liquid wastes. In the case of textiles, people may discard used clothes when it is not of faction and do not share with others because of some ritual beliefs in Africa. People often believe that clothes once won can be used to plan evil against him or her (Agazue, 2014). The low PET and plastic materials is because

Management Practices
Despite the efforts applied by the municipality and Community Based Enterprises (CBEs), municipal solid management remains a very serious environmental and public health issues for the city of Paynesville. As presented in Table  2, waste management practices are extremely unhealthy, unsustainable and rudimentary. The wastes generated by households are being burned, buried and disposed in open areas or designated dumpsites. A high percentage (70%) of the waste generated by households is burned and dumped in vacant places in the community. The limited waste service providers, irregularity in collection frequency and systems, the unavailability of communal area or public bins and limited segregation are mean factors exacerbating the poor waste management. Waste separation is not a common practice among households. The materials used by households for storage of waste generated are not standard/environmentally friendly as they do not contain lid. Standard bins should have lid to prevent flies and other diseases carrier (Guerrero et al., 2013;Aguoru & Alu, 2015). Used bucket, plastic drum/metal and rice bags are mostly used storage medium. Generally, old bucket has been observed to be the most used material for temporary storage of waste in developing nations (Kumar, 2006;LISGIS, 2008;Afon & Okewole, 2007;Oberlin, 2011). This may be as the result of its availability and limited recycling opportunities available. Rice bag was less used by households because of its numerous uses particularly by charcoal vendors. The similar medium of storage was reported by studies conducted in Ghana and Uganda (Guerrero et al., 2013;Aguoru & Alu, 2015;Mukisa, 2009;EGSSAA, 2009). This is either because most of the households cannot afford conventional bins or they are readily unavailability in the country. Although conventional bins are environmentally friendly, most of them are expensive and scare in developing nations (Guerrero et al., 2013;Aguoru & Alu, 2015). Furthermore, there is lack of locally designed and produced bins for storage of wastes at the household level in Liberia. Most of the bins were found near the kitchen and were uncovered. Journal of Geoscience and Environment Protection Similar observation was made in (Aguoru & Alu, 2015;Henry et al., 2006) where uncovered bins were placed close to the kitchen. However, it is important to note that lack of lid and closeness of these storage materials near the house can cause health challenges, especially when the waste is mixed and not collected frequently (Aguoru & Alu, 2015;EGSSAA, 2009;Henry et al., 2006).
In terms of temporary refuse disposal area, there is no communal facility or public bins in the study area. Lack of predetermined locations or communal community disposal facility is also causing indiscriminate disposal of waste. Unlike the findings of this study, a study conducted (Mugagga, 2006)  The waste is then loaded in large tipping truck by a wheeled loader and transported to the Whein Town Landfill for final disposal. Although the transfer station is considered as short emergency measure, it is inefficient and unhygienic.
The transfer stations are not properly managed. Smells, litters, poor vehicle utilization, land degradation and improperly dressed scavengers are major problems of transfer stations. The stockpile of garbage has major challenges to the sellers, buyers, scavengers and passer-by. There is high concentration of unpleasant smell from biodegradable waste components thereby affecting air quality and climate. This is because the waste has already started decomposing due to less collection frequency before it is being brought to the transfer station. At the transfer station, scavengers were seen picking from garbage without personal protective equipment (PPEs). These recyclable pickers, most of whom were women, were seen picking recyclables without any gloves, noise masks and rain boot.
The waste disposed at the transfer station is a mixed fraction of the waste stream which makes it unsafe for scavengers. There are sharps metals such as zinc, iron and others which could easily cut waste pickers hands.
Plate 1. PCC tricycle offloading at the ELWA market transfer station.
Plate 2. Scavenger without PPEs picking after offloading. Journal of Geoscience and Environment Protection Solid waste collection and transportation is considered as the function of the Local Government Borough. The Paynesville City Cooperation (PCC) is solely responsible for the collection and disposal of garbage being generated within the confine of the Borough. However, Population and economic growth couple with lack of finance have overpowered the Cooperation's efforts to expand waste management services. To mitigate the challenge and for a collection system to be effective, it must be designed to suit location conditions. The PCC adopted an integrated system for waste collection. Waste collection is done by private and public institutions. This created the avenue for the establishment of Community Based Enterprise (CBEs) and Small Medium Enterprises (SMEs) to help collect garbage and maintain the orderliness of the city. The CBEs are mainly responsible to carry out door to door collection of municipal solid waste, while the SMEs are responsible to collect and transport municipal solid waste from holding points to final disposal site (Landfill). However, as shown in Table 2, very few of the households benefit from waste collection services. In terms of collection frequency, the study shows that solid waste is collected once a week from most households. The less coverage was attributed to lack of Finance, equipment, technical expertise and data for planning. Similar waste collection practices were reported in is implemented in many countries in Africa (Henry et al., 2006;Coffey & Coad, 2010;Mbeng et al., 2009).

Challenges Faced by Households
While it is true that there have been efforts in curbing solid waste dilemma, there are still array of challenges faced. These challenges reveal why solid waste is indiscriminately handle in the community. As shown in Figure 2, the community lacks temporary or communal, waste service provider and sound environmental storage bins for household waste management. This calls for provision of standard bins either through a loan scheme or humanitarian aid and the enhancement of CBEs capacities through the provision of collection equipment such as tricycle. The environment and health impacts are obvious in the Cowfield Community as the result of improper waste disposal and management.

Conclusion and Recommendations
The The study therefore recommends the adoption of an integrated sustainable solid management system. This should prioritize waste minimization, reusing, recycling, segregation, collaborative partnership and effective collection in other to create avenue for waste to energy, composting and other wastes value addition services.
Research should be conducted across other communities at different for spatial and temporal variation, comparative analysis and to monitor and evaluate performance of waste management system and community challenges. Municipality should enhance collaboration and leadership between the CBEs and community as well encourage political support and community participation.
Community sensitization and capacity building programs should be designed along with the community needs that should focus more on solutions that align with local conditions. To increase the coverage of waste collection and build good rapport, CBEs should prioritize efficiency and effectiveness to make their services reliable. CBEs should also engage into community awareness, give back F. Nyumh et al. Journal of Geoscience and Environment Protection programs and constantly evaluate action plans that will inform collection strategies.