Cumberland River Resource Stewardship and Protection: Managing the Cumberland River and the Land Between the Lakes Landscapes

Cumberland River formed on Cumberland Plateau by confluence of the Poor and Clover forks in Harlan county, Kentucky and loops south through northern Tennessee. It joints the Ohio River at Smithland, Kentucky. The Cumberland River is 1107 km long and has a drainage area of 46,830 km2. The Cumberland crosses a highland bench in Cumberland Plateau and flows in a gorge between 90 120 m cliffs. The Cumberland Falls is 20.7 m high. The river enters the central limestone basin of Tennessee, turning north, crosses the plain of western Kentucky to Ohio River at Smithland, Kentucky and at one point it is less than 3 km from Tennessee River. The Cumberland River had a long history of transporting furs, canoes, guns, armies, settlers, coal products and manufactured goods in the 1700s and 1800s. Three separate forks (Martin’s Fork, Clover Fork, and Poor Fork) flow out of the Appalachian Mountains in southeast Kentucky near the Virginia border to form the headwaters of the Cumberland River near Harlan, Kentucky. Steamboat traffic on the Cumberland River increased substantially in the 1800s as expanding coal fields, stone quarries and Tennessee produce began to be shipped throughout the region. The Cumberland River was surveyed during this period and between 1832 and 1838 Congress appropriated $155,000 for improving commercial navigation. With this infusion of money the United States Army Corps of Engineers (USACE) could clear the river of snags and build wing dams to deepen the channel. A 1060 km Cumberland River regional trail system, similar to the Tennessee River regional trail system under development, is needed to promote recreational tourism and increase use of the Cumberland River and basin. The primary objectives are: 1) to document how the landscape and geological resources of the Cumberland River have contributed to the successful water resource and economic development of a historic region in North America, 2) to identify future risks to the natural and How to cite this paper: Olson, K.R. (2021) Cumberland River Resource Stewardship and Protection: Managing the Cumberland River and the Land Between the Lakes Landscapes. Journal of Water Resource and Protection, 13, 92-111. https://doi.org/10.4236/jwarp.2021.132006 Received: January 18, 2021 Accepted: February 16, 2021 Published: February 19, 2021 Copyright © 2021 by author(s) and Scientific Research Publishing Inc. This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution International License (CC BY 4.0). http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/


Introduction
During the American Civil War, Kentucky and Tennessee were critical border states ( Figure 1). Both the Union and Confederate armies sought to control river traffic to ensure troops and supplies reached strategic locations [1]. Fort Donelson ( Figure 2) was built on the Cumberland River by the Confederates 80 km upstream from its confluence with the Ohio River in order to protect Nashville ( Figure 3) from Union forces approaching by river. However, the upper Cumberland ( Figure 4) was not easy to defend and the fort was captured in      by river to lumber companies to finish for the growing construction industry. Without locks and dams, lumber rafts (up to 33 m × 9 m × 2.4 m) had to wait for the spring rains to raise the river channel depth to float and pole their cargo downstream to markets.
After surveying the Cumberland River, USACE engineers began to identify lock and dam sites and make plans to modernize the river for commercial navigation ( Figure 3). Nashville, Tennessee (Figure 7) is located on the Cumberland River [1] which is quite narrow through the city. Construction on Lock and Dam 1 located upstream from Nashville, Tennessee was begun in 1888. A few years later Lock and Dam A at Harpeth Shoals was authorized by Congress. By the early 1900s, eight stone or concrete and timber dams were built above Nashville and six below. And, by 1924, the Cumberland River's main channel depth had been increased to a minimum of 1.8 m from the Smithland confluence with the Ohio River ( Figure 8) upstream to Burnside, Kentucky. New technologies in powering towboats replaced steamboats with gasoline and diesel engines enabling raw and finished materials to be moved more quickly up and downstream to manufacturing plants and consumers. Simultaneously railroad construction accelerated and expanded commercial transportation throughout the U.S. This growing network of rail and river transport provided complementary and competitive options for moving freight, and fueled the industrialization of the nation in the twentieth century. There are 6 lock and dams on the Cumberland River including Old Hickory Lock and Dam and Cordell Hull (Figures 9-11). Navigation Locks and Dam east of between Cheatham Lake and Cumberland Lake.       [1]. Lake Cumberland, the 160 km long reservoir behind the dam has an average depth of 27.4 m and the capacity to hold 7500 km 3 of water which can be strategically released to manage downriver flooding and for increasing the navigation channel depth during droughts. The 2020 km shoreline and 20,600 ha lake has become a tourist destination for fishing, houseboats, and other types of recreational boating. Two additional reservoirs were also built, the Cheatham near Ashland City (1959) and the Barkley in Western Kentucky (1966) for hydropower and flood control. In total, eight dams controlled the river from Burnside, Kentucky to Ohio River by the 1970s.
Heavy rainfall over the Cumberland River Basin during the night of January 1, 1937 averaged 6.3 cm with several stations reporting in excess of 10 cm [2]. It continued to rain and on January 2 nd flood warnings on the rising Cumberland River were issued from Burnside, Kentucky to Nashville, Tennessee. Twenty-five successive days of rain over the Ohio River Valley ( Figure 12 The primary objectives of the paper are: 1) to document how the landscape and geological resources of the Cumberland River have contributed to the successful water resource and economic development of a historic region in North Journal of Water Resource and Protection    America, 2) to identify the natural and environmental resource risks to the Cumberland River basin, 3) create a Cumberland River regional trail system, similar to the Tennessee River regional trail systems, with more community access points along the Cumberland River pathway, and 4) create generations of people who care about the environmental stewardship and protection of the river and landscape resources.

Ancient Ohio and Cumberland River Valleys
Millions of years ago the ancient Cumberland River carried snowmelt and preci-pitation runoff water from the Appalachian uplands westward and drained into the ancient Ohio River on its way through Southern Illinois ( Figure 16) and the confluence with ancient Mississippi River [4]. The White River to the north and the Cumberland flowing from the south were major tributaries of the ancient Ohio River while the Wabash and Vermillion rivers were blocked by glacial ice dams and drained northward into the ancient Teays River Valley. The ancient Tennessee River (west of the ancient Cumberland River) ran in the modern day Ohio River channel and confluenced directly with the ancient Mississippi River south of modern day city of Cairo. Seismic activity and glacial melt water cut through the land bridge ( Figure 16) [5] and the ancient Cumberland, White, Tennessee and Ohio Rivers combined to create the current Ohio River which was formerly the ancient Tennessee River channel. About 12,000 to 15,000 years ago at the end of the glacial period these combined rivers redirected their flows into the current Ohio River channel leaving the ancient Ohio River valley in southern Illinois (modern day Cache River and Bay Creek valleys) ( Figure 17) without a major river and only local drainage.

Federal Response to Flood of 1936-1937: The Barkley Dam, Reservoir and Barkley Canal
A series of storms after Christmas 1936 dumped heavy precipitation over the Ohio River Valley and its tributaries as warm moist air from the Gulf of Mexico collided with dry cold Artic air over a 26 day period extending into late January  Tennessee were moved from their homes along the Cumberland River and the upland ridge between the Tennessee River and the Cumberland River to make way for a second large dam and reservoir, the Barkley [6]. The area between the Kentucky Lake and the Barkley Lake became known as the Land Between the Lakes. Journal of Water Resource and Protection  Floodway was opened using TNT to blow a hole in the Birds Point levee.

Tennessee Valley Authority
The most dramatic change in Cumberland Valley life came from the electricity generated by USACE and TVA dams (Figure 13 and Figure 19). The TVA is the nation's largest power company. Cheap transportation along the River helped to develop the economy of the State of Tennessee. Electric lights and modern appliances made life easier and farms more productive. Electricity also drew industries into the region, providing needed jobs. The Barkley Dam (Figure 13) was created on the Cumberland River, only a few kilometers from Kentucky Dam (Figure 19). The dam was created for several purposes, but most importantly, flood control and generated hydroelectric power. Eddyville and Kuttawa, located on the Cumberland River, were often flooded by the river. USACE decided that the small locks and dams up and down the Cumberland River were not enough for flood control, so the construction of the Barkley Dam began in 1959 and was completed in 1964. These reservoirs were connected by the Barkley shipping channel (Figure 20) which helps keep the surface levels at a similar elevation. Water releases are timed to maintain the water levels in the two lakes within 0.3 m.

Managing Cumberland, Tennessee and Ohio Rivers in Highly Variable Climatic Conditions
The historical levees-only strategy of the USACE resulted in construction of levees on the bottomlands along both sides of the lower Mississippi River from on the Cumberland River. These lock and dam-reservoir systems improved the USACE capacity to control the fast rise of the Ohio River during spring rains and maintain water levels for navigation during dry periods. The flood of 2011 and the drought of 2012 in the Mississippi-Ohio river basins resulted in record river crests ( Figure 22) and flooding followed by near record low water levels on the lower Ohio and lower Mississippi rivers [9] [10] [11]. The Kentucky and Barkley reservoirs have the capacity to hold vast amounts of water during flooding events with pools extending through Kentucky and into the state of Tennessee. During the drought of 2012 which lasted from June 2012 through January of 2013, these reservoirs were used to discharge sufficient water to add at least 1.2 m to the lower Ohio River shipping channel depth and allow shipping without additional dredging. It is quite likely that shipping would have stopped or been interrupted for many months without the use of Kentucky and Barkley reservoirs.

Land between the Lakes
The Cumberland and Tennessee rivers flow north into the Ohio River side by  LBL's indicate that upland oak forests and grasslands were more prevalent than they are today. In recent years, oak-grassland restoration demonstration areas have been established in the area. A tourist destination, the LBL's offers camping, hunting, fishing, off-highway vehicle riding, horseback riding and environmental education programs. Featuring "outside play" the national recreation area provides access to over 480 km of natural shoreline, 320 km of paved road and 800 km) of trails.

Mantle Rock Nature Preserve
Located 28 km north of the Cumberland and Ohio Rivers confluence lies an area rich in biodiversity, archeology, and historical value. Owned and managed by The Nature Conservancy, Mantle Rock Nature Preserve holds a significant rock formation. The sandstone bridge is 9.4 m high and 57.3 m long. In 2004, the National Park Service certified the site as part of the Trail of Tears National Historic Trail. In 2010, The Nature Conservancy enhanced the site with interpretive signage and well-maintained hiking trails. Native warm season grasses and oakhickory dominated forest are in abundance as well as sandstone glades. A wide variety of songbirds, reptiles, and mammals are present across the preserve. In addition, there are clear running bolder lined streams on the preserve. The site has become a popular hiking and nature experience destination since the upgrades by The Nature Conservancy and its partners (personal communication from Shelly Morris, The Nature Conservancy).

Conclusions
Since the construction of the Barkley Dam on Cumberland River in 1960s and the Kentucky Dam on the Tennessee River (Figure 23) in the 1940s the USACE has had the ability to store and release water during major droughts such as 2012 to maintain a minimum 2 m depth of river water above the 2.7 m Ohio River shipping channel [4]. The Kentucky and Barkley reservoir water releases also increases the flow in the lower Mississippi River. The need for Ohio and Lower Mississippi River dredging was reduced during the 2012 drought. The New Madrid floodway did not have to be used during flooding events between the 1940s and 2011. This reservoir storage strategy worked until the record flood of 2011. With the Barkley and Kentucky reservoirs at full capacity, USACE was forced to release excess water. Management of the Ohio and Mississippi river landscapes continues to be a challenge for the USACE as the frequency of extreme weather years, such as the flood of 2011 and the drought of 2012, is increasing [12].
Public and private levee systems may not be robust enough to address flooding risk to agriculture under changing climate conditions. Of concern are levee protected riverine bottomlands with intensive agricultural uses and diminished wetland systems that give resilience to floodplain hydrologic functions. In the United States natural and induced levee breaching has caused soil damage, loss of agricultural productivity, and public tension among agricultural landowners, urban residents, and environmental interests. Risk management and adaptive capacity of this human natural system could be improved by assessments of: 1) soil damage and 2) stakeholder values, fears, and knowledge about the riverine bottomland agroecosystem. Effective management beyond confinement-dispersion strategies for future unknown risks and catastrophes will need new strategies beyond the current levee, floodway, lock and dams and reservoir structures represent [9] [13] [14].
A Cumberland River regional trail system, similar to the Tennessee River regional trail system under development, is needed to promote recreational tourism and increase use of the Cumberland River and basin. The goal would be to create generations of people who care about the Cumberland River and are willing to provide environmental stewardship of the watershed resources and protect the river for future generations.