Best Practice Standards and Methodology for Crane Operator Training — A Global Perspective

Crane operators control mobile or stationary cranes to lift, move and place objects at locations such as building and construction sites, wharves and shipyards. This activity occurs all over the world and is a high risk task with many noted examples of serious incidents and accidents. There are identifiable key causes that have been noted through analysis of the well documented cases and many of these causes are preventable through effective training programs. Internationally, there are not currently consistent approaches to crane operator training program content or duration. Leading causes of crane accidents are firstly discussed and identified as areas for inclusion in training programs. A number of current training approaches from a range of countries are then considered and these are used to outline the basis of a generic competency standard for crane operation, as it was found that there are not common standards in place. The proposed competency standard can be adapted by training regulators, training providers, government agencies, industry bodies and enterprises as a benchmark for the development of effective training programs.<br>

is not in agreement, internationally and nationally in some instances. Some definitions exclude non-construction cranes such as industrial gantry, bridge and jib cranes, while others exclude longshore or mining operations.
In some cases, there are well documented incidents that can be utilised as case studies and for future learnings. As an example, In Queensland (Australia), Work Cover Queensland [2] report that between July 2013 to June 2018, there were 244 accepted workers' compensation claims involving injuries where workers have been struck by moving or falling objects or trapped by moving machinery activities involving cranes. Approximately one third (35%) of these claims were serious (involving five or more workdays absent). Regarding North American incidents, Lee [3] outlines that according to data provided by the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, on average, 70 construction workers are killed each year in crane-related deaths. For statistical purposes, the term "crane-related" pertains to not only the physical operation of a crane, but also secondary crane accidents, such as those including ground personnel. The U.S.
Bureau of Labor Statistics [4] reports At least four people were struck directly by the falling crane tower and jib, two of them died at the scene, while a further two died shortly after they arrived at the hospital.
In the UK, a 70 ton Sennebogen 673E telescopic crawler crane tipped onto its counterweight in October, 2019. Also in the UK, the jib of a Spierings mobile self erecting tower crane broke free and dropped onto the job site where it was working on November 21, 2019. As a final example, one man died and two were injured, one very seriously, after a tower crane dropped a fully loaded 53 cubic feet skip of concrete onto the men, who were working in the pour area below. The There are a number of common occurrences in incidents involving cranes. The first of these relates to tipping and any tipping incident can be extremely dangerous for both the crane operator and the other workers in the area surrounding a crane [6]. All cranes have weight limits to ensure that the crane will not tip over [7]. To counterbalance the weight, cranes use counterweight and outrigging systems and tipping incidents are commonly related to improper use of outriggers. This can occur in several different ways but is largely related to unsuitable ground conditions, including depressions, voids, excavations, and uneven grading. When the outrigger pad is positioned on unlevel, wet, or otherwise unstable surfaces, there may be an inability to control crane positioning.
Another common occurrence in crane incidents is related to failed rigging which often arises from human error, ranging from improper adherence to procedure to utilizing broken or failing parts. There are also occurrences of boom collapse due to improper weight calculation by the operator. Not adhering to weight limits and incorrect use of load charts can cause boom collapse, dropped loads, and tipping.
There are also a number of cases of electrocutions due to overhead power lines.

Method
A qualitative approach is utilised to gain a stronger understanding of the underlying principles of crane incidents and accidents and the role of training in their prevention. The discussion and conclusions drawn are based on a literature review together with consideration of the current practices in training and assessing crane operator competence internationally. Noted best practice is outlined within a specific context, where training and assessment is related to crane oper- According to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics [4], just over half of all fatal crane injuries (between 2011 and 2015) involved the worker being struck by an object or equipment. More than 60% of these cases (69 of 112) involved the worker being struck by a falling object or equipment and in 60 of these cases, the worker was struck by an object falling from a crane. Transportation incidents and falls to a lower level each made up 14 percent of the remaining fatal injuries involving cranes.
OSHA's analysis of crane accidents, outlined in Graphic Products [11], identified the major causes of crane accidents as boom or crane contact with energized power lines, under the hook lifting device, overturned cranes, dropped loads, boom collapse, crushing by the counter weight and outrigger use, falls and rigging failures.
Health and Safety Executive [12] found that problems arising from workers or the work team, especially worker actions or behaviour and worker capabilities, were judged to have contributed to over two thirds (70%) of the accidents in their research study related to construction accidents. They suggest that this points to inadequate supervision, education and training. In the context of crane accidents, Lee [3] outlines that most fatal crane accidents can be attributed to the following dangers: electrocution by overhead power lines; blunt force trauma from being struck by crane loads, booms, or jibs; injuries resulting from falls from cranes, crane baskets, or crane loads; and crush injuries resulting from crane collapses. Many of these dangers can be controlled through worker actions or behaviour and worker capabilities.
Shapira and Lyachin [13], cited in Zhao [14], identified 21 major factors affecting safety in tower-crane environments and organised these into major groups: project condition related, environment-related, human-related and safety management related. Among those affecting factors, they identify that operator proficiency is the factor that scored the highest degree of Influence. Zhao also identifies other studies that examined the Hong Kong construction industry and found the factors most affecting the safety in tower crane operations include negligence or misjudgement of participants in tower crane operations, inadequate training, subcontracting practices in tower crane operations, and pressure from deadlines.

Legislative Frameworks for Crane Operator Certification
In many countries, there is a legislative basis in place for certification of crane operators. For example, in the United States of America, OSHA regulations that went into effect in April, 2019, are designed to minimize accidents by strengthening crane operators' knowledge and training. Goodman [15] advise that the regulations, which revised the way that operators are trained, evaluated and certified, put the responsibility for operator readiness on the employer. They apply to a range of construction equipment including mobile cranes, tower cranes, service truck cranes, digger derricks and dedicated pile drivers. The OSHA regulations require crane operators must be certified or licensed and receive ongoing training to operate new equipment.

The Need for Operator Training
The operation. They note that, in the U.S., human error is responsible for 90% of crane accidents and as much as 80% is due to operation beyond the crane's capacity.

Crane Operator Training Programs
Internationally, there is not a consistent approach to training or training requirements for crane operators. Training may form part of a national system, may be required to meet specific regulator requirements, may have defined competency standards, may have industry endorsement or may be independent of any formal training system.
There are any number of crane operation training programs internationally that are not part of a national or mandatory system. These range from programs delivered by industry groups, employers, professional associations, vocational education and training providers and product suppliers.  [21] is an extensive three-week training providing the knowledge and skills to become a NCCCO certified crane operator. The three-week project is structured as: • Week 1: Classroom instruction on mobile crane operation including Qualified Rigger Level 1 training and testing to meet OSHA §1926 Subpart CC requirements.
• Week 2: Intensive hands-on training where you learn to master load control and prepare for the NCCCO practical exams. Also includes more technical training for load charts, range diagrams, crane set-up, lift planning, hydraulic systems, wire rope inspection, regulations, and pre-operational inspection.
• Week 3: NCCCO Certification written test preparation and written/practical testing. BCA Academy [22] provides an example of a program designed to meet regulator certification. They offer an 86-hour course that leads to a Certificate of Successful Completion required by MOM for registration to be a tower crane operator for tower crane operation. This training course consists of 2 modules [22]

Competency Standards
In an international arena, some countries have highly evolved, detailed and de-  Performance criteria describe the performance needed to demonstrate achievement of the element.  The candidate must show evidence of the ability to complete tasks outlined in elements and performance criteria of this unit, including: • locating and applying required documentation, policies and procedures • selecting and wearing personal protective equipment required for work activities • monitoring and managing equipment performance using indicators and alarms • identifying common equipment faults • selecting and using required tools and equipment • inspecting and preparing work area The candidate must be able to demonstrate essential knowledge to effectively complete the task outlined in the elements and performance criteria of this unit. This includes knowledge of: • relevant recognition, permit, licence or permission to operate within any region, locality, state or territory issued by the government regulatory authority of that jurisdiction • acting responsibly and understanding consequences of own actions related to crane operations • policies and procedures relating to own role and responsibility The competency standard also addresses and allows for training to emphasise load chart interpretation. The National Commission for the Certification of Crane Operators [16] outline that knowledgeable crane experts all agree that there is no more abused, misunderstood, or just plain ignored aspect of mobile crane operations than the crane's load chart, a fact NCCCO can confirm based on its experience of administering hundreds of thousands of written tests. They outline that without a thorough understanding of a mobile crane's load chart, an operator cannot have an accurate picture of either its capabilities or its limitations.

Training Program Duration
Examining the range of training programs and approaches applied internationally, there are no general common approaches to crane operator training duration. The duration of the training programs are generally not mandated and can vary locally, regionally and nationally.
The ECOL training consists of a theoretical and a practical part, each lasting a minimum of 120 hours for novice operators [18]. An experienced operator, however, has the possibility to follow the ECOL programme with a reduced duration where crane operators with four to eight years of operating experience have to do a three-week training program, consisting of 40 hours practice and 80 hours theory, and take the examination. Crane operators with eight or more years of operating experience have to do a one-week training program, consisting of 16 hours of practice and 16 hours of theory, after which they will take the examination.
In the Australian system, the average duration to complete Licence to operate a slewing mobile crane (up to 60 tonnes) is 36 Hours and CPCCLTC4001A Licence to operate a tower crane is conducted on average over 6 days [24]. The duration then, in Australia, varies with the class of licence and is determined by the training provider delivering the training.
The North American NCCCO training usually lasts for 4 to 8 weeks, can be of several months' duration depending on the type of crane certification being sought.
Crane training programs must give participants the opportunity to fully absorb the required knowledge and develop skills over time in the different contexts they would experience in the workplace. There must also be sufficient time for the participant to practice and consolidate knowledge and skills. Participants must be given the opportunity to practise or implement their new ideas.
Given the range of variation noted in current programs, the norms would indicate a training duration of 80 to 120 hours for a novice crane operator would be suitable. The competency standard, as provided in Table 1, would reasonably require at least 80 hours to deliver.

Conclusions
In all parts of the world where cranes are utilised, there is evidence of serious incidents and accidents occurring. Crane collapse or falling loads can cause serious injuries, fatalities as well as damage to property on and off site. Unsafe use of crane equipment presents significant risk potential for people and property and many of the cases where accidents occur, they could have been prevented through adequate training prior to operation.
There are currently no international standards or benchmarks for training in crane operations and there is a great degree of variation in the way these programs

Conflicts of Interest
The author declares no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this paper.