Mineral Resources of Gilgit Baltistan and Azad Kashmir, Pakistan: An Update

The Gilgit-Baltistan Province and Azad Kashmir regions are rich in mineral and natural resources. The gemstones, marbles and many other economic mineralizations are significant but these regions are relatively far from central and southern commercial areas of Pakistan. The gemstones of Gilgit-Baltistan Province are famous worldwide especially from Hunza and Skardu regions. The Azad Kashmir region also has a share of gemstone especially from the upper approaches of Neelam valley and marble, construction materials, coal, clays and other minerals found from different areas of Azad Kashmir. There is no common previous availability of comprehensive papers providing mineral data of Gilgit-Baltistan Province and Azad Kashmir regions. This report provides a quick view of mineral resources occurred in the Gilgit-Baltistan and Azad Kashmir regions.

Gold-silver-platinum: The alluvial gold is being mined at small scale from different parts of Indus river from upper reaches to Attock like Gilgit, Chilas, Besham to Attock [8] [102]- [117]. In Northern areas under Gold Exploration and Mineral Assessment Project (GEMAP), carried by Australian Assistance during 1992-95, the integrated sampling and geochemical maps were prepared.
Gold was detected in many hundreds of drainage cells (tributaries). Among these 24 sites shows high anomalous gold. These anomalies are mostly associated with major shear zone/Indus Suture and some are porphyry type intrusives or altered carbonates [103]. The upper reaches of Chitral, Gilgit and the Indus River in northern parts of Pakistan are well known for the placer gold occurrences [104]. The Bagrot valley [105], Shigari Bala area of Skardu [110] and Golo Das and surrounding areas [111] of Gilgit-Baltistan seems to be significant for gold and base metal mineralizations. Further the gold from the Ladakh area, the upper reaches of Skardu has been reported [112]. The devlopment of gold along with other gemstones can play a significant role for the development of the areas [113] is a good hope. This indicated the upper reaches of Indus and also Kabul river have the sources of dispersed primary gold but the transportation by water provided its richness at this level that it can be get from stream sedimnts screen washing and water panning in Indus river.
Aquamarine: It is a silicate of beryllium and aluminum and belongs to beryl group. It is reported from Dassu and Khaplu, Baltistan [5] [114]. It occurs in the pegmatites of Karakoram and NW Himalayas. Light blue aquamarine is most abundant in the gem pegmatites of Gilgit-Skardu area [99]. The better known deposits are Iskere, Shingus, Dusso and Tisgtung. These areas have good potential for deeper blue colour, high priced aquamarine and merits further exploration and development [8].
Emerald: It is a member of beryl group. It is fancied for its clear dewy green. It is due to Chromium content and in fact a green beryl without chromium would not be accepted as an emerald. Emerald is believed to posses healing power and to some people it is known as the healing stone. It is found in ophiolitic rocks of mélange zone of northern Indus Suture. The emerald deposits occur at near Khaltaro in Gilgit area. In short it has great potential for enhancing emerald production and mining activities [8].
Fluorite: It is used as a flux in making steel, in the manufacture of white and coloured opalescent glass, in enameling cooking utensils, for the preparation of Hydrofluoric acid and elemental fluorine and also ornamental use. The fluorite (CaF 2 ) mineralization is found in the Karakoram and Indus suture and adjoining (blue), oriental emerald (green) and oriental topaz (yellow). It is found in the suture and vicinity areas [8].
Ruby: It belongs to olivine family. It is the birthstone for the month of August and it is said to put ghosts and demons to flight, dispel melancholy and foolishness and to show the eternal paths to wisdom. It is reported from the marble of Bashe-Highar and Strakin Rondu, Baltistan [5] [114]. The main deposits occur in the dolomitic marble extending for over 100 km from Hunza valley to Ishkoman, close to Main Karakoram Thrust. Mining is confined to 13 mining centers spread over a length of 15 km in Hunza Valley. Thus there is great potential for development of ruby deposits in Pakistan. The host marble of this region also contains the minerals like sapphire, spinel, pargasite, margarite, phlogopite, chlorite, graphite, pyrite, rutile, dolomite, sphene, apatite, tourmaline, plagioclase, pyrrhotite, quartz, calcite, and goethite [98] [119].
Spinel: It is a group with magnesium aluminium oxide composition. It is admired for its lovely vibrant colors, strong brilliance, and striking clarity. It can be withstand great heat without change and occurs in an extremely beautiful variety. Purple to blue and blue green varieties are also common. Spinal with its ruby red colour is closely associated with Hunza ruby deposits [120]. The red colour of spinel is due to presence of chromium, where as the bluish and plum (Alu Bukhara) colored varieties owe their colour to the presence of iron [99]. The Hunza spinels are larger than those customarily found in Burma and are far more attractive [8].
Topaz: It is fancied for its glowing, fiery sparkle and its wide range of colors ranging from yellow to golden brown, rose red to peach (Aro or Shuftalo) pink, blue to shining azure/sky blue and colorless to pure white. The yellow variety resemble citrine (yellow quartz), but it is more attractive mainly due to its higher refractive index (1.62), hardness 8, and specific gravity 3.5 -3.6. They mostly found in microcline-quartz-muscovite matrix. Topaz bearing pegmatites are found at Bulechi, Shingus and Gone near Dessu in the Skardu area. It is reported from Harmosh range, Iskere valley Gilgit [97]. It is found in Pakistan and if properly and correctly promoted in world market, its price can be very greatly enhanced [8].
Tourmaline: It is famous for its beautiful colors, occurring in all possible hues and shades. The more common hues are ruby red (rubellite), orange through brown to yellow, green and blue (indicolite). The gem varieties include rubellite, dravite, elbaite and liddicoatite [99]. It is believed to be stone for the October-born and is said to speed the writers' flow of thought. It is reported from Khaplu Baltistan [5] [115], Harmosh range [97]. It is found in the pegmatites of the Haramosh range near Gilgit, Stak Nala (Between Gilgit and Skardu), Bulechi and Shingus (Gilgit Division). Some of the best and fairly large specimens of bicolor and tricolor tourmaline have been found in these pegmatites [8] [100].
Peridot: It belongs to olivine family. It is the birthstone for the month of August and it is said to put ghosts and demons to flight, dispel melancholy and foolishness and to show the eternal paths to wisdom. It is found near the Kohistan-Kaghan watershed to the NE of Naran. It occurs along shear zones and in pockets in dunitic host rocks and are associated with clinochlore, magnetite and magnesite. It occurs in the immediate hanging wall of the Indus Suture and possibly it may be found in the hanging wall of Karakoram suture. It represents the basal cumulates of the Sapat mafic-ultramafic complex [123]. It is transparent to translucent and pale to dark yellowish green, rarely greenish yellow. The Peridot is mostly Fo 91 in composition but ranges from Fo 90 to Fo 94 .
Nephrite Jade: Nephrite is silicate of calcium and magnesium. Jadeite is silicate of sodium and alluminium. Nephrite upto about 10 cm lump is reported from river bed may be derived from Siwalik conglomerate at the junction of Teri Toi stream with the Indus river and confluence of Teri Toi and Pathan Algad in Kohat district [124]. Nephrite is originally may be derived from ultrabasic rocks and formed by metamorphism [5]. So its source rocks are in northern areas, so its exploration from basic/ultrabasic rocks of Gilgit Baltistan can reveal better results.
Exploration of gemstones in alluvial and bed rocks; Gemstones commonly being collected from bed rocks. Howver gold and many gemstones being collected from river beds, stream sediments and alluvial placer deposits in many rivers and streams by stream sediments washing methods. In some countries like adjoining India, the rare earth elements bearing monazite is being obtained from alluvial deposits. In this way [125] reported rare earth bearing gemstone Bastnasite (carbonate fluoride'; honey yellow to reddish brown). The author suggests that the governments should facilitate those who working on stream sediments washing methods for gold, gemstones and also may be encouraged for other heavy minerals like monazite, zircon, rutile, ilmenite, etc. rare earth bearing gemstone (Bastnasite) Metallic and non-metallic Mineral Resources Arsenic: It is produced mainly as a by product in the smelting of the copper Nala and in Jutial Gol the 10 kilometers to the southeast of Gilgit town [4]. The normal pyrite deposits were reported in slate upto maximum 25% concentration of pyrite, while in Jutial Gol the moderate deposit of pyrite were reported in quartz vein which is about 2 meter/m thick and over 150 m long [4]. Further pyrite nodules are common in the sedimentary, metamorphic and igneous rocks of different ages. The reference [138] reported pyrite deposits of Naz bar area, Yasin valley, Gilgit district, Northern area, Pakistan. Quartz veins: These are reported from north of Normal near Hottar peak, near Normal (25% pyrite in slates), in Dainyor Nala and Jutial Gol (pyrite in quartz veins) near the Gilgit town, Gilgit Agency [4]. Further these are widely exposed in the Astore, Skardu and different areas of Gilgit Baltistan.
Sheet mica/muscovite: Mica splits in to thin sheets which are strong, flexible, chemically inert, and transparent. Muscovite is used in electrical, machinery and other industries. Transparent sheets are also used for windows in coal, gas and oil stoves, gas lamps chimneys and lamp shades. Scrap mica is used in the manufacture of wall paper, gypsum plaster board, cement, lubricants, fancy paints, electrical insulators and micanite. Phlogopite is used as insulator in electrical apparatus. For commutators, phlogopite is preferred. Lepidolite is a common source of lithium compounds. Muscovite occurs in granites and syenites and pegmatites and also common in gneisses and schists. Phlogopite occurs in crystalline limestone, dolomite, schists and serpentine. Mica or Lepidolite occurs in pegmatite veins, granite, gneisses and sands. [139] and [127] reported mica from different northern areas. The used mica is muscovite, phlogopite (yellow to green copper or bronze red) and Lepidolite (rose red). Muscovite is found in pegmatites near Baltit, Hyderabad in Hunza state, Dasu in Baltistan, Shigar, Shengus, Astor etc in Gilgit-Baltistan [5] [8]. The mica sheets are rather small, usually less than 0.3 m in size, in Karakoram block limited and sporadic mining has been done near Baltit and Dassu [8]. Lithium/lepidolite is reported from Shengus or Shingus of Nanga Parbat Massive (numerous pegmatites intruded in gneissic rocks) [140].
Soapstone and talc: Soapstone small deposits occur as veins in ophiolitic complex in the Indus and Karakoram sutures.
Heavy mineralizations: The heavy mineralizations of gold, zircon, rutile, ilmenite, magnetite, monazite, tungsten, Rare Earth Elements, and others reported from stream sediments in Indus River and its tributaries. The anomalous results of stream sediments shows the host deposits which may be dispered or concentrated deposits and further revealed its concentration in alluvial deposits.
In short the alluvial and placer deposits are significant for these heavy minerals exploitations.
Mercury: Hg has many uses and also hazardous for human and climate. [141] mentioned the anomalous results of mercury in trees and soils along Gilgit, Hunza and Indus rivers indicates the sources deposits of mercury in the catchment areas of Gilgit, Hunza and Indus rivers occurred.

Cement Raw Material Resources
Cement raw material includes limestone 75% and clays/shale 25% for clinker preparation and further it needs Gypsum 5% as retarder. The limestone/marbles and shale/slates/phylites and siliceous igneous rocks are found in the reported area, so cement industry can be installed. Only gypsum will be required from Khyber Pakhtunkhwa/north and south Punjab/Balochistan. Ceramic Mineral Resources Large amount of igneous rocks, quartz veins and limestone/marble are found in the area.
Construction, dimension and decorative stone resources These are extensively used in the construction industry, for decorative purposes in building facings, bath rooms and for floor tiles. It is used for making handicraft items. Pakistan and also the reported areas consist of huge marble and limestone resources [142] [143] [144]. The most commonly used are simple marble, onyx or banded marble, various types of limestones and igneous rocks, mainly granite, dolerite etc. Attractive and good quality marble/limestone/dolomitic limestone, granite, dolerite dykes, serpentine, slate stone, quartzites, are found in different areas of Gilgit Baltistan. Open Journal of Geology

Coal Resources
The reference [135]  AKRSP carried adits and at depth coal finished [71], Fuel research centre and HDIP). The Jurassic and early Cretaceous rocks are widely exposed in entire length of Chapursun valley and extend in to Wakhan valley of Afghanistan. Coal was being mined from Wakhan valley Afghanistan and also reported by local people. A detailed study can prove the existence of economical deposits. However the coal blending process like mixing of low quality coal with high quality coal by any methods like blending in bed, blending by silo, blending by ground hopper and blending on moving belt (most common) can produce required results for thermal power or any other uses [145]. Further the reference [146] mentioned that "it was observed that (Aluminum, Arsenic, Barium, Bromine, Petroleum Resources Due to dominant igneous rocks and severe shear zones due to tectonic and geodynamics of Indo-Pakistan plate, the area is not significant for petroleum prospecting, however the northern part of Karakoram belt the sedimentary rocks belonging to Eurasian/Asian plates can be tested for petroleum exploration.
Radioactive Mineral Resources The radioactive minerals of uranium, thorium, etc occur primarily in the ig-neous rocks especially in the northern Indus Suture, Kohistan-Ladakh, Karakoram blocks. Uranium concentration is increasing toward east in Karakoram, may be correct for gold. It is enriched in Gilgit-Baltistan. The monazite associated rare earth elements along with thorium and small amounts of uranium may occur in higher areas. The monazite may found with the heavy mineral concentrates like ilmenite, sillimanite, garnet, rutile, zircon minerals after water panning done in Indus river sands. The reference [147] reported uranium occurrences in magmatic and metamorphic rocks of northern Pakistan and reference [148] reported survival factor of uraninite in the major rivers of Gilgit, Kohistan and Indus Basin, northern Areas and the reference [149] carried the study to quantify the indoor and outdoor gamma radiation level, the associated effec-

Mineral Resources of Azad Kashmir, Pakistan: An Update
The  Gold-silver-platinum: The platinum group represents platinum, palladium, rhodium, ruthenium, iridium and osmium. Gold, silver and platinum group are Ruby: Ruby deposits of Azad Kashmir are located in Khandigali-Nangimali-Khora-Katha, Chitta Ratta and Naril Nala areas of Neelam valley. They are associated with meta limestone and occur in calcite veins along bedding planes. The deposits are being mined and the reserves are estimated at about 24.9 million grams [155]. The ruby quality is excellent where phlogopite, fuchsite, chrom diopside, calcite and minor pyrite and muscovite are present. The size of light pink ruby crystal increases where graphite, pyrite and phlogopite are present with minor fuchsite. The gemological and mineralogical characters of Kashmir metamorphic ruby are very similar to Bermese ruby [156].
Garnet: The more common minerals are Pyrope (glowing red colour), almandine (brownish red to reddish violet colour), rhodolite (rose red colour and strong luster), spessartine (most exquisite orange hue), grossularite (brown, reddish brown, clear sparkling copper-gold to green), demantoid (unusual and rare among garnets and fancied for its brilliance and fire with refractive index 1.89.
As a birthstone for those born in January, it symbolizes fidelity, friendship and constancy. A high quality orange red spessartine garnet has been recently discovered in pegmatites in Neelam valley of Azad Kashmir. This deposit has yielded large transparent crystals [8].
Sapphire: It is found in the Mochel, Pador Azad Kashmir [5] [114]. Mochel is approachable from the Zanskar side by the Umasi or the Pense Pass [5]. Saphire is obtained from surficial deposits [5].
Xenotime: It is YPO 4 with REEs replacing Y. Xenotime is widespread accesory mineral in granite. It is misidentified with zircon. It is associated with zircon, monazite, allanite and other REEs. It is common detritial heavy mineral in sands and placer deposits. The Neelam and Reshian valleys of Azad Kashmir have wide exposures of granite which may yield xenotime gemstones.
Tourmaline: It is famous for its beautiful colors, occurring in all possible hues and shades. The more common hues are ruby red (rubellite), orange through brown to yellow, green and blue (indicolite). The gem varieties include rubellite, dravite, elbaite and liddicoatite [99]. It is believed to be stone for the October-born and is said to speed the writers' flow of thought. Green tourmaline has been found in pegmatites of Donga Nar in Azad Kashmir. Some of the best and fairly large specimens of bicolor and tricolor tourmaline have been found in these pegmatites [100].
Quartz crystals and Jewelry: These crystals can be used in best jewelry for attraction as diamond because India is famous due to using diamond in jewelry.
Pakistan has many quartz crystals deposits. For detail, see in quartz veins title. It is used as gem and also used for dishes, optical instruments, spectacles, chemical, radio appliances, frequency control in electrical and radio apparatus. It is silicon dioxide and common rock mineral and also includes a number of ornamental varieties. The ornamental varieties can be crystalline such as amethyst and citrine or cryptocrystalline such as opal, agate, chrysoprase, chalcedony, and cor- The reference [163] did not mention any significance phosphate deposits from Azad Kashmir.
Potash: Potash/alum is found and associated with Hangu coal (synonym Patala coal) in the eastern limb of Devi Garh thrusted anticline, Khoi Ratta area of Kotli district [39].
Limestone: Pakistan has vast deposits of limestone and marl both can be used for fertilizer because lime is best fertilizer for acidic soil which neutralizes the soil acidity. Calcium is essential element for normal growth of plants and activity of nitrifying bacteria (micro-organisms) and it regulates the supply of phosphorous for plants. Its deficiency can accumulate Al and Mn upto harmful concentration. For detail please see the cement raw and construction materials.
Gypsum: It has multi-uses like soil conditioning, cement resources, etc. Pl. sees in cement resources.

Cement Raw Material Resources Open Journal of Geology
Cement raw material includes limestone 75% and clays/shale 25% for clinker preparation and further it needs Gypsum 5% as retarder. Pakistan has the lowest per capita consumption of cement. Further Pakistan is paying a lot of earning every year for calcium chemicals. It is highly desirable to take step for extending cement, lime and calcium chemicals industries, so that the country will be self-sufficient and able to export these materials to earn exchange. Recently au- Bentonite/ fuller's earth: Bentonite commonly used for drilling muds. It is non swelling type of clay with white, grey and brown colours and high calcium %. To convert them into swelling type, it is converted into sodium bentonites by Base Exchange process done by PCSIR in 1963. Origin of bentonite is redeposition of decomposed volcanic ash, tuffs and lavas of Permo-Carboniferous volcanics [165] or Tertiary volcanism [166]. Thin beds (upto few cms only) of bentonite are known in Bhimber-Mawa Kaneli and Samwal-Pothi-Karota in foothills of Azad Kashmir. Total cumulative reserves of all mentioned localities are 12,000 ton/metre of depth [166]. It is being produced from Punjab, Sindh, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and Azad Kashmir. The reference [167] reported coal and bentonite deposits of Kotli Tehsil, Mirpur, Azad Kashmir. The reference [168] reported the bentonite resources of Punjab and adjoining areas of Azad Kashmir. Kotli coal: Kotli Coal is known from 1876 in Azad Kashmir [167]. The heating value of Sarwar coal is 4545 BTU/lb, Dandili coal is 6276 BTU/lb, Mohra Sehri coal is 4300 BTU/lb, Balmi coal is 10,217 BTU/lb and Bangang coal is 10,824 BTU/lb. The Engineers Combined Ltd Lahore [159]  Kirthar Basin (Southern/lower Indus) consists of exposed Precambrian to recent rocks more than 15 km thick. It consists of Kirthar fold and thrust belts, Jacobabad-Khairpur high/horst (Sukkur Rift), Kirthar depressions and Sindh monocline. The main reservoir rocks in Sindh monocline are Cretaceous Mekhtar Sandstone/Mekhtar Formation (Lower Goru sandstone) and from Karachi Depressions production is from Paleocene Ranikot group limestone and sandstone. In Kirthar depressions and Jacobabad-Khairpur high/Sukkur rift zone it may be from Eocene Habib Rahi and Paleocene Dungan limestone. The Mesozoic Stratigraphy of Kirthar basin can be seen in Sulaiman basin because Sulaiman and Kirthar basins have same Mesozoic stratigraphy, however differ in Cainozoic Stratigraphy. Paleocene Ranikot Group represents Khadro (sandstone, shale, limestone and volcanics), Bara (sandstone with minor limestone, coal and volcanics) and Lakhra (limestone and shale) formations; Early Eocene Laki Group represents Sohnari (lateritic clay and shale, yellow arenaceous limestone pockets, ochre and lignite seams) and Laki (shale, limestone, sandstone, lateritic clay and coal) formations, Early-Middle-Late Eocene Kirthar Group represents Kirthar (limestone, marl and shale) and Gorag (resistant and peak forming limestone with negligible shale and marl) formations, Oligocene Gaj Group represents Nari (sandstone, shale, limestone) and Gaj (shale with subordinate sandstone and limestone) formations, Miocene-Pliocene Manchar Group/Vihowa Group represents Chitarwata (grey ferruginous sandstone, conglomerate and mud), Vihowa (red ferruginous shale/mud, sandstone and conglomerate), Litra (greenish grey sandstone with subordinate conglomerate and mud), and Chaudhwan (mud, conglomerate and sandstone) formations, and Pleistocene-Holocene Sakhi Sarwar Group represents Dada (well developed conglomerate with subordinate mud and sandstone) and Sakhi Sarwar Formation (poorly developed conglomerate with subordinate mud and sandstone, while in centre of valleys the mud is dominant) which are concealed in the valleys and plain areas by the Subrecent and Recent fluvial, eolian and colluvial deposits. Thar is represented by eolian sand dune deposits.
Radioactive Mineral Resources The radioactive minerals of uranium, thorium, etc occur primarily in the igneous rocks especially in the northern Indus Suture and igneous rocks of Neelam valley. It is found in graphitic schist and graphitic coal of Precambrian Salkhala formation and granite, etc in Reshian (ESE of Muzafarabad) and Neelam valley.
Geothermal Energy Resources Geothermal hot spring sites are Tatta Pani, Kotli (Azad Kahmir with discharge of springs ranging from 0.5 to 30 litres per second and surface temperature from 35˚C to 94˚C). The thermal water is neutral to slightly alkaline. Na is dominant cation in all cases with different anions like HCO 3 , SO 4 and mixed type. The results indicate a good potential of these resources for industrial, domestic, electricity generation, heating and dry ice making purposes [153] [154]. Tatta Pani in Kotli (Azad Kashmir) can be benefitted especially in winter for Tatta Pani town.

Water Resources and Dam Constructions
Azad Kashmir has a lot of surface and ground water [9] [10] [11] [60] [160]. surrounded by Pleasant and heaven valleys, rich minerals and gemstone, and many rivers like Gilgit, Indus, Jhelum offer opportunities for research, exploration and development. These areas represent both Gondwanan as well as Laurasian geoheritage. The protection of these geoheritages as national and global geoparks is an innovation for the sustainable development of science and Pakistan. Further gemstones museums in Gilgit Baltistan and Azad Kashmir play role for the development of the area. The northern part of Gilgit-Baltistan (especially Chapursan-Sost valley) represents Mesozoic marine and terrestrial sediments; these are significant for finding of vertebrate bones of Laurasian affinity while Azad Kashmir is significant for Gondwanan affinity. The paleontology, paleobiogeography, geodynamics and tectonic evolution are critical among world scientists because its Indus Basin was attached to Gondwana in the past but now connected with Asia. Pakistan is museum for many significant invertebrates and vertebrates. We should construct large museums of bones where the national and international researchers, students and visitors can access easily. The recent finding of fossils especially large vertebrates from Indus basin (while Kotli-Muzaffarabad of lower Kashmir is part of Indus basin) like poripuchian titanosaurs [170] [171] [172] [173] [174] and theropods [175] dinosaurs, mesoeucrocodiles [175] and pterosaurs [174] [175] of Gondwanan affinity, and large rhinoceroses [174] of Eurasian affinity from Sulaiman basin [174] and first time in Balochistan basin [174] and many other vertebrates, and invertebrates [174] from Pakistan are gifts for the scientists.

Conflicts of Interest
The author declares no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this paper.