1. Introduction
This paper does not address the wide range of processes, mechanisms, and mergers generating galactic structures and leading to the myriad galaxy types observed by astronomers. Instead, it identifies the range of isolated galactic structures consistent with conservation of mass and angular momentum in a holographic large scale structure (HLSS) model [1] .
Current observations indicate that our universe can be approximated as a closed vacuum-dominated Friedmann universe. Futhermore, “the universe is dominated by an exotic nonbaryonic form of matter largely draped around the galaxies. It approximates an initially low pressure gas of particles that interact only with gravity…” [2] . The holographic principle [3] applied in a vacuum-dominated universe led to an approximate large scale structure model [1] where isolated structures with total mass
inhabit spherical holographic screens with
radius
if the Hubble constant
. The HLSS model considers galactic matter density distributions
,
where
is distance from the galactic center. Then, mass within radius
is
, and tangential velocity of stars or star clusters in circular orbits within
the
density distribution around the galactic center is
, where
.
This analysis treats galaxies as spherical halos of dark matter with radius S and
density distribution
surrounding total baryonic mass
. Cosmological data indicate matter fraction of total energy density of the universe is
and baryonic fraction of total energy desity is
, so baryonic fraction of matter is
and dark matter fraction is
. The analysis uses
, but a distribution of values centered around
could be used to assess galactic systems formed in parts of the universe with slightly higher or lower ratio of baryons to dark matter. This paper considers galactic structures at redshift
, but the analysis is readily extended to
using results in Ref. [1] .
2. Black Holes in the Galactic Core
There is no singularity in galactic matter density distribution
because mass inside a core radius C at the galactic center is concentrated in a
central black hole with mass
, where C is the holographic radius
of star clusters that can inhabit circular orbits just outside the core without being disrupted and drawn into the central black hole [1] . The mass
comprising the dark matter halo with mass
plus baryonic matter with mass
is
.
Total angular momentum of a galaxy is estimated using the moment of inertia
of a rotating sphere with galactic holographic radius S and density
. From the holographic relation
, total angular momentum of the galaxy is
, where
is galactic angular
velocity. Galactic angular velocity
is estimated by considering a mass m fixed on the rotating holographic screen at radius S. Radial acceleration
of that mass results from gravitational force
attracting
it to the centroid of the structure. Then, (correcting a misprint in Ref. [1] )
and
. In the HLSS
model [1] , average galactic mass at
is
and average galactic angular momentum is
, 15% higher than Paul Wesson’s [4] empirical value
.
Central black hole angular momentum
cannot exceed maximum
Kerr black hole angular momentum
, and
. In the HLSS model at
,
galactic mass ranges from
to
and
. So
ranges from
to
, and central black hole angular momentum is negligible. Core radius C equals the holographic radius of star cluster sub-elements of the galaxy that can inhabit circular orbits around the galactic center without being disrupted by the central black hole. Maximum HLSS star cluster mass is
, so
, and minimum star cluster mass is
, so
.
3. Spiral Galaxies
Spiral galaxies predominate in underdense regions of the universe. This analysis treats baryonic matter in isolated spiral galaxies as disk structures with constant
tangential velocity
surrounding a central sphere with constant
density.
4. Conservation of Mass and Angular Momentum
Baryonic matter outside core radius C around the central black hole consists of a bulge, with mass
in a hollow sphere with inner radius C and outer radius B, and a disk with mass
. So
. Total mass within B and outside the core in the
density distribution around the
galactic center is
and tangential velocity at B is
. If
, the baryonic part of total mass within B, is
in a hollow sphere with inner radius C and outer radius B,
(1)
Conservation of mass then requires a disk mass
(2)
Angular momentum conservation in spiral galaxies requires
, where terms on the right of the equation are respectively the angular moment of the central black hole (
), the dark matter halo (
), the central bulge (
), and the disk (
). Since
,
(3)
A hollow sphere with density
, inner radius C, and outer radius R has moment of inertia
, so angular momentum
of
galactic baryonic matter comprising the bulge and disk with mass
is
(4)
5. Bulge Radius and Disk Thickness
If the hollow sphere of baryonic matter constituting the bulge has constant
density
, tangential velocity of baryonic matter in the bulge rises from
at core radius C to V at B. The hollow
sphere of the bulge with constant density
has moment of inertia
. To approximate observed velocity curves, angular velocity of
the constant density bulge is found by setting tangential velocity at the edge of
the bulge
equal to disk tangential velocity V, so
and
(5)
From Equation (4), disk angular momentum is
(6)
Maximum bulge radius
occurs when there is no disk and all baryonic mass is bulge mass. From
, using
and
,
and
.
Next, consider a disk extending from
to
with density
, approximating an isothermal disk with constant
scale height
. Setting scale height
, the integral
. With constant disk
height H encompassing 99.9% of disk matter, disk mass is approximately
and disk angular momentum is approximately
For
,
Setting radial scale length
, the following equation can be solved for x by trial and error
Given x,
is found from
If sufficient data are available, the model can be extended to consider situations where different stellar populations are in sub-disks with different radial scale lengths and scale heights This is relevant because analysis of the Milky Way [5] found different star populations in sub-disks with scale height inversely related to sub-disk radial scale lengths.
6. Percentage of Bulgeless Spiral Galaxies
Kormendy et al. [6] note that bulgeless galaxies with
“challenge our picture of galaxy formation by hierarchical clustering.” In this analysis, spiral galaxies with mass
have bulge radii between
and
. If bulge radius
approximates the demarcation
between spirals with and without a bulge,
is the bulgeless fraction of
spiral galaxy configurations consistent with mass and angular momentum
conservation. Estimating
from
, 6% to 10% of galaxies with mass
ranging from
(with
) to
(with
) are bulgeless. With scale height
, the integral
, so a central subdisk
of height H/2 contains 96.4% of disk mass. Estimating
from H/2 = 2B*, 19% to 23% of galaxies with masses between
and
are bulgeless. These estimates bracket the 15% estimate of bulgeless galaxies found among 15,127 edge-on disk galaxies in the sixth release of SDSS data [7] . So, holographic analysis has no difficulty accounting for bulgeless giant spiral galaxies.
7. MOND Is Unnecessary
Dark matter can account for flat velocity curves in spiral galaxies, and observations of the colliding “bullet cluster” galaxies 1E0657-558 provide further evidence for dark matter. To avoid using dark matter to account for flat velocity curves, Modified Newtonian Dynamics (MOND) assumes the law of gravity is different at large distances. Ref. [8] cites the baryonic Tully-Fisher relation and mass discrepancy-acceleration (or
) relation as “challenges for the LCDM model,” and accounts for those relations using MOND with an acceleration threshold
. However, the HLSS model [1] within the LCDM paradigm readily accounts for the MOND acceleration threshold, baryonic Tully-Fisher relation, and mass discrepancy-acceleration (
) relation. First, radial acceleration at holographic radius S is
, equal to MOND
acceleration. Second, radial acceleration at radius R due to dark matter is
and at R sufficiently distant from the galactic center that
total baryonic mass of the galaxy
can be treated as concentrated at the galactic center, Newtonian radial acceleration from baryonic matter is
. Radius
where
is found from
. Since
,
, and at that radius
, near the MOND estimate. Third, tangential velocity V at R relates to radial acceleration
by
. So,
, and
. When
,
. Using
,
and
. When
,
and
. So, when
,
and using
and
,
, known as the baryonic Tully-Fisher
relation. Fourth, if
, the cosmological constant
, and accelerations
and
are consistent with the acceleration
. So, the MOND hypothesis is unnecessary.
8. Elliptical Galaxies
Elliptical galaxies predominate in overdense regions of the universe, and may result from mergers and collisions of progenitor galaxies. Baryonic matter interacts more strongly than dark matter, so collisions between galaxies can produce torques transferring angular momentum from baryonic matter to the composite halo, yielding baryonic ellipsoids with angular velocity less than the angular velocity of the halo and the galaxy as a whole.
This analysis treats elliptical galaxies as constant density ellipsoids within a surrounding spherical isothermal dark matter halo. Dynamical instability of thin galaxies (the firehose instability) limits long axes of ellipsoids to about three times the length of short axes. So elliptical galaxies in this model range from oblate spheroids with radius A along the spin axis equal to one third the radius
perpendicular to the spin axis to prolate spheroids with radius A along the spin axis equal to three times the radius
perpendicular to the spin axis.
In the holographic approach, galaxies are arrangements of bits of information identifying the location of matter in the galaxy. There is no reason for one arrangement of information satisfying conservation of mass and angular momentum to be preferred over another. So, different configurations satisfying conservation of mass and angular momentum with the same total mass should be equally likely.
Baryonic ellipsoids outside the core radius C surrounding the central black hole have baryonic mass
and, since
and
, the moment of inertia around the spin axis
. Prolate and
oblate spheroidal ellipsoids are analyzed as deformed versions of spheres with
radius
, so the spheroids fit within the holographic screen. Prolate and
oblate spheroids with radius
along the spin axis have the same mass and angular momentum as spheres with radius
. For prolate spheroids capable of avoiding firehose instability, radius along the spin axis ranges from
to
,
and for corresponding oblate spheroids it ranges
from
to
,
. Ellipsoid angular velocity depends on how
much baryonic angular momentum was transferred to the halo during elliptical galaxy formation.
Hubble class of prolate spheroidal elliptical galaxies with major axes A varying
from
to
and minor axis
is
rounded to the
nearest integer, so limits imposed by firehose instability only allow prolate spheroidal elliptical galaxies of Hubble class E0 to E7. We only see projections of ellipsoids on the plane perpendicular to our line of sight, so actual Hubble class AEi of an elliptical galaxy and its projected (observed) Hubble class Ei are not the same. Prolate elliptical galaxies rotate around their major axis and oblate elliptical galaxies rotate around their minor axis, so results hold for oblate galaxies when
is replaced by A, and the projection effect can be understood by considering only prolate spheroids. Table 1 shows
major axis lengths marking transitions between Hubble classes for prolate spheroids, where
is A projected on the plane perpendicular to the line of sight.
When the angle between rotation axis of prolate elliptical galaxies and the line of sight decreases from 90˚ to 0˚, the projection
on the plane perpendicular to the line of sight of the actual A along the axis of rotation gets smaller, so projected shape of the galaxy gets rounder and higher actual Hubble classes appear as lower projected Hubble classes as the axis of rotation gets closer to the line of sight. Hubble class distribution of prolate spheroid shapes projected on the plane perpendicular to the line of sight is found by integrating
from
to
and from
to
. As above, this analysis
assumes information (matter), in prolate elliptical galaxies capable of avoiding firehose instability with a given mass and angular momentum and corresponding radius
perpendicular to the rotation axis, is evenly distributed among prolate spheroids with radius
along the spin axis ranging from
to
. Total occupancy of prolate elliptical galaxies with given mass
and angular momentum is
. The interval AE0 from
to
contributes
to projected Hubble class E0. The interval AE1
Table 1. Major axis lengths
marking transitions between Hubble classes for prolate spheroids.
Table 2. Projected Hubble class Ei of elliptical galaxies versus actual Hubble class AEi of elliptical galaxies.
from
to
contributes
to projected Hubble classes E0
and E1, broken down as
where
, the first term in the integral contributes to projected Hubble
class E0, and the second term contributes to projected Hubble class E1. Similarly, the interval AEi from
to
contributes to all projected Hubble classes from E0 to Ei, broken down as
where the first term
contributes to projected Hubble class E0, the last term contributes to projected Hubble class Ei, and intervening terms contribute to projected Hubble classes
from E1 to
. Use
and
to get
, and
. This results in Table 2,
listing fractional distribution of projected Hubble class of elliptical galaxies. The result suggests Hubble class E7 galaxies comprise < 2% of elliptical galaxies.